Plantation is a large-scale farm specializing in commercial crops. Plants grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, palm oil, rubber trees, and fruits. Protectionist policies and natural comparative advantages sometimes contribute in determining the location of the plantation.
Plantation house is the main house of the estate, often a large farmhouse, which often serves as a symbol for the plantation as a whole. Home plantations in the southern United States and elsewhere are often very grand and expensive architectural works.
Among the earliest plantation instances were the Roman Empire latifundia, which produced vast quantities of wine and olive oil for export. Agricultural plantations grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of world economy following the expansion of European colonial empire. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time. Early forms of plantation agriculture are associated with large wealth and income gaps, foreign ownership and political influence, and exploitative social systems such as contract labor and slavery.
Video Plantation
Hutan tanaman
Industrial plantations were established to produce high volume of timber in a short time. Plantations are planted by state forestry authorities (eg, the UK Forestry Commission) and/or paper and timber industries and other private landowners (such as Weyerhaeuser, Rayonier and Sierra Pacific Industries in the United States, Asia Pulp & Paper in Indonesia). Christmas trees are often planted in plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have recently replaced natural forests.
Industrial plantations are actively managed for commercial production of forest products. Industrial estates are usually large-scale. Individual blocks are usually age-old and often consist of only one or two species. This species can be exotic or native. Plants used for plantations are often genetically modified for desirable traits such as growth and resistance to pests and diseases in general and special traits, for example in the case of wood species, volume wood production and straightening of stems. The genetic source of the forest is the basis for genetic change. Individuals selected to grow in seed gardens are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material.
Wood production in tree plantations is generally higher than natural forest. While forests managed for timber production generally produce between 1 and 3 cubic meters per hectare per year, fast-growing species plantations typically produce between 20 and 30 cubic meters or more per hectare per year; The Grand Fir plantation in Craigvinean in Scotland has a growth rate of 34 cubic meters per hectare per year (Aldhous & Low 1974), and the Monterey Pine plantation in southern Australia can produce up to 40 cubic meters per hectare per year (Everard & Fourt 1974 ). In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forests, it is estimated that they supply about 35% of world logs.
Growth cycle
- In the first year, the soil is prepared normally with a combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or planting and then the seedlings are planted by human crews or by machines. Tree children are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in selective breeding to produce fast-growing diseases and pest-resistant strains.
- In the first few years until the canopy closes, the tree stake is treated, and can be sprinkled or sprayed with fertilizer or pesticide until it is formed.
- Once the canopy is closed, with tree crowns touching each other, the plantations become solid and solid, and tree growth slows by competition. This stage is called 'pole stage'. When the competition becomes too tight (for a pine tree, when the crown of life is less than a third of the tree's total height), it is time to dilute the part. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography allows, the most popular is 'row-thinning', where every third or fourth or fifth tree row is removed, usually with a reaper. Many trees are thrown away, leaving a clear and orderly path through the sections so that the rest of the tree has room to grow again. The felled trees were evacuated, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto the truck, and sent to the mill. A typical pile plantation tree is 7-30 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh). Such trees are sometimes unsuitable for wood, but are used as pulp and particle board, and as chips for oriented strand board.
- As the tree grows and becomes solid and solid again, the dilution process is repeated. Depending on the growth rate and species, trees at this age may be large enough for wood grinding; if not, they are re-used as porridge and crisps.
- Around the year 10-60 the plantation is now ripe and (in economic terms) falling from the back side of its growth curve. That is, it passes the maximum growth point per hectare per year, and is ready for final harvest. All remaining trees are felled, felled, and taken for processing.
- The soil is cleaned, and the cycle is repeated.
Some plantation trees, such as pine and eucalyptus, can be at high risk for fire damage due to leaf oil and flammable rosin to the point where a tree is exploding under some conditions. In contrast, plantations that suffer in some cases can be cleared of cheap pest species through the use of specified burns, which kill all smaller plants but do not significantly damage the mature trees.
Natural forest loss
Many forestry experts claim that the establishment of plantations will reduce or eliminate the need to exploit natural forests for timber production. In principle this is true because because of the high productivity of the plantation, it needs less land. Many point to the example of New Zealand, where 19% of the forest area provides 99% of the supply of industrial logs. It is estimated that world fiber demand can be met only 5% of the world's forests (Sedjo & Botkin 1997). However, in practice, plantations replace natural forests, for example in Indonesia. According to the FAO, about 7% of the natural forest lost in the tropics is land converted to plantations. The remaining 93% is land converted to agricultural land and other uses. Worldwide, about 15% of plantations in tropical countries are established in natural forests covered canopy.
In the Kyoto Protocol, there are proposals that encourage the use of plantations to reduce carbon dioxide levels (although this idea is challenged by some groups on the grounds that the exiled CO 2 is finally released after harvest).
Criticism of the plantation
In contrast to naturally regenerated forests, plantations usually grow as an even monoculture, especially for timber production.
- Plantations are usually near or total monoculture. That is, the same tree species are planted in certain areas, whereas natural forests will contain much more diverse tree species.
- Plantations may include tree species that will not occur naturally in the area. They may include unconventional types such as hybrids, and genetically modified trees may be used in the future. Since the primary interest in the plantation is to produce wood or pulp, the tree species found in plantations are most suitable for industrial applications. For example, pine, fir and eucalyptus are planted far beyond their natural reach due to their rapid growth rate, tolerance of degraded or degraded agricultural lands and potentially produce large volumes of raw materials for industrial use.
- Plantations have always been ecologically young forests. Typically, trees grown on plantations are harvested after 10 to 60 years, rarely up to 120 years old. This means that forests produced by plantations do not contain the typical growth, soil or wildlife species of long-standing natural forest ecosystems. Most striking is the absence of decaying dead wood, an important component of natural forest ecosystems.
In the 1970s, Brazil began building high-rotated, intensive, and short-lived plantations. These types of plantations are sometimes called fast-wood plantations or fiber farms and are often managed on short rotational bases, as small as 5 to 15 years. They are becoming more widespread in South America, Asia and other regions. The environmental and social impacts of this type of plantation have caused them to become controversial. In Indonesia, for example, large multinational pulp companies have harvested natural forest without regard to regeneration. From 1980 to 2000, about 50% of the 1.4 million hectares of pulpwood plantations in Indonesia have been established on what was once a natural forest.
The replacement of natural forests with plantations has also caused social problems. In some countries, again, especially Indonesia, natural forest conversion is made with little attention to the rights of local communities. Plantations established purely for fiber production provide a much narrower range of services than indigenous natural forests for local communities. India has sought to limit this damage by limiting the amount of land owned by one entity and, consequently, a smaller plantation owned by a local farmer who then sells timber to a larger company. Some large environmental organizations are critical of this high-yield plantation and run anti-plantation campaigns, especially Rainforest Action Network and Greenpeace. ==
Maps Plantation
Agriculture and home
Agricultural or home farms are usually established for the production of wood and firewood for home use and sometimes for sale. Management may be less intensive than Industrial plantations. Later, this type of plantation is difficult to distinguish from naturally regenerated forests.
Indian teak and bamboo plantations have yielded good results and alternative cropping solutions for farmers in central India, where conventional farming is very popular. But because of the increasing input costs of agriculture many farmers have done teak and bamboo plantations that require very little water (only during the first two years). Teak and bamboo have legal protection from theft. Bamboo, once planted, yields results for 50 years until flowering occurs. Teak takes 20 years to grow to full maturity and take it back.
This can be established for watershed protection or soil. They are established for erosion control, landslide stabilization and windbreaks. Such plantations are established to encourage native species and encourage forest regeneration in degraded lands as a means of environmental restoration.
Ecological impact
Perhaps the single most important factor plantations have in the local environment is the location where the plantation is established. If natural forests are cleared for planted forests then biodiversity reduction and habitat loss are likely to occur. In some cases, its formation may involve the draining of wetlands to replace mixed pine hardwoods previously dominated by pine species. If the plantation is established on abandoned agricultural land, or highly degraded land, it can result in an increase in both habitat and biodiversity. Planted forest can be advantageously established on land that will not support agriculture or suffer from lack of natural regeneration.
The type of tree used in the plantation is also an important factor. Where varieties or non-native species are planted, some native fauna are adapted to exploit this and subsequent loss of biodiversity occurs. However, even non-native tree species can serve as corridors for wildlife and act as native forest buffers, reducing edge effects.
Once the plantation is established, how to manage it becomes an important environmental factor. The single most important management factor is the rotation period. Plantations harvested in longer rotation periods (30 years or more) can provide benefits similar to those of natural regeneration forests managed for timber production, on the same rotation. This is especially true if native species are used. In the case of exotic species, the habitat can be significantly increased if the impact is reduced by measures such as leaving the original species block on the plantation, or maintaining natural forest corridors. In Brazil, similar action is required by government regulations
Sugar
Sugar plantations were highly prized in the Caribbean by British and French colonies in the 17th and 18th centuries and the use of sugar in Europe increased during this period. Sugarcane is still an important crop in Cuba. Sugar plantations also appear in countries such as Barbados and Cuba because of their natural prestige. This natural contribution includes land conducive to growing sugar and high marginal products realized through increasing the number of slaves.
Rubber
The rubber planting, the tree Hevea brasiliensis , is usually called a plantation.
Oil palm
Palm oil is growing rapidly in the wet tropics, and is usually developed on a plantation scale.
Orchards
The fruit garden is sometimes regarded as a plantation.
Crops that can be planted
These include tobacco, sugar cane, pineapple, and cotton, especially in historical usage.
Before the emergence of cotton in South America, indigo and rice are also sometimes called plantation crops.
Fishing
When Newfoundland was colonized by the British in 1610, the original invaders were called "Planters" and their fishing rooms were known as "fish farms". These terms are used well into the 20th century.
The following three estates are managed by the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador as provincial heritage sites:
- Sea-Forest Plantation is a 17th-century fishery plantation established in Cuper's Cove (Cupid of the present) under the royal charter issued by King James I.
- Mockbeggar Plantation is an 18th-century fishery estate in Bonavista.
- Swimming Pool Plantation is a 17th-century fishery plantation run by Sir David Kirke and his heirs in Ferryland. The plantation was destroyed by the French colonists in 1696.
Other fishery plantations:
- Hope Plantation Bristol, a 17th-century fishing estate set up in Harbor Grace, made by the Bristol Merchant-Adventure Society.
- Benger Plantation, an 18th-century fishery plant run by James Benger and his heirs in Ferryland. Built on Georgian plantation site.
- Piggeon's Plantation, an 18th-century fishery plant run by Ellias Piggeon in Ferryland.
Slavery
African slave workers are widely used to work on early plantations (such as tobacco, rice, cotton, and sugar plantations) in American and American colonies, throughout the Caribbean, America, and in African-occupied Europe. Some renowned historians and economists such as Eric Williams, Walter Rodney and Karl Marx argue that the global capitalist economy is largely based on the creation and production of thousands of labor camps based in colonial plantations, exploiting the tens of millions of Africans purchased.
In modern times, the low wages typically paid to plantation workers are the basis of the profitability of plantations in some areas.
In more recent times, open slavery has been replaced by slavery or slavery-in-kind , including profit-sharing systems. At its most extreme, the workers are in "debt bondage": they have to work to pay off debts with a punitive interest rate in such a way that it may never pay off. Others work very long and are paid subsistence wages which (in practice) may only be spent in the company's store.
In Brazil, sugar cane plantations are termed as engenho ("machine"), and the use of 17th century English for managed colonial production is "factory." This colonial social and economic structure is discussed in the plantation economy.
Sugar workers in plantations in Cuba and elsewhere in the Caribbean live in company towns known as bateyes.
South America Antebellum
In South America, pre-war plantations are concentrated in "plantation houses," where the owner lives, where business is important. Slavery and plantations have different characteristics in different regions of the South. When the Upper South section of the Chesapeake Bay colonies flourished first, the planting historians defined the South as the owners of 20 slaves or more. Large planters hold more, especially in Deep South as they are developed. The majority of slave owners hold 10 or fewer slaves, often only a few workers in the country. By the end of the 18th century, most planters in Upper South had switched from exclusive tobacco planting to mixed crop production, both because tobacco had run out of soil and as the market changed. The shift from tobacco means they have slaves that exceed the amount needed for work, and they start selling it in the internal slave trade.
There is a variety of domestic architecture in the plantation. The largest and wealthiest planting families, for example, are those with plantations overlooking the James River in Virginia, building big houses with bricks and Georgian style, such as Shirley Plantation. The common or smaller planters of the late 18th and 19th centuries have more simple wooden frame buildings, such as Southall Plantation in Charles County Town.
In the Lowcountry of South Carolina, on the contrary, even before the American Revolution, the planters holding large rice plantations typically had hundreds of slaves. In Charleston and Savannah, the elite also have many slaves to work as domestic servants. The development of Deep South for the cultivation of 19th century cotton depends on large estates with much larger areas than typical in Upper South; and for laborers, the planters hold hundreds of slaves.
Until December 1865 slavery was legal in some parts of the United States. Most slaves work in agriculture, and the planter is a term commonly used to describe a farmer with many slaves.
The term grower does not have a universally accepted definition, but academic historians have defined it to identify the elite class, "a landowning farmer with substantial means." In the "Black Belt" region of Alabama and Mississippi, the terms "planter" and "farmer" are often identical. Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman define large planters as the owners of more than 50 slaves, and the owners of intermediate estates have between 16 and 50 slaves.
In his study of the Black Belt district in Alabama, Jonathan Wiener defines a planter with real property ownership, not a slave. A planter, for Wiener, had at least $ 10,000 worth of real estate in 1850 and $ 32,000 worth of 1860, equivalent to about 8 percent of landowners. In his study of southwest Georgia, Lee Formwalt also defined the planters in the size of land ownership rather than slaves. The Formwalt Planters were above 4.5 percent of the landowners, translating into real estate worth $ 6,000 or more in 1850, $ 24,000 or more in 1860, and $ 11,000 or more in 1870. In his study of Harrison County, Texas, Randolph B. Campbell categorizes large planters as the owners of 20 slaves, and small planters as owners between ten and 19 slaves. In the Chicot and Phillips area of ​​Arkansas, Carl H. Moneyhon defines large planters as owners of twenty or more slaves, and six hundred hectares or more.
See also
- Forest farming
- List of plantations
- Plantations in South America
- Slavery in the United States
References
- Notes
- References
- Aldhous, J. R. & amp; Low, A. J. (1974). Western Hemlock Potential, Western Red Cedar, Grand Fir and Noble Fir in the UK. Bulletin of the Forestry Commission 49.
- Everard, J. E. & amp; Fourt, D. F. (1974). Monterey Pine and Bishop Pine as a tree plantation in southern England. The Forestry Journal of Quarterly 68: 111-125.
- Lewes, Diana, A Year in Jamaica: Memoirs of a girl in Arcadia in 1889 (Eland, 2013) ISBN 978-190601183-3
- Savill, P. Evans, J. Auclair, D. Falk, J. (1997). Silviculture Plantation in Europe. Oxford University Press . Oxford. ISBNÃ, 0-19-854909-1
- Sedjo, R. A. & amp; Botkin, D. (1997). Use plantation forests to save natural forests. Environment 39 (10): 15-20, 30.hu
- Thompson, Edgar Tristram. The Plantation edited by Sidney Mintz and George Read (University of South Carolina Press; 2011) 176 pages; 1933 dissertation
- Virus, Nancy, "Changes in Plantation Systems: South America, 1910-1945," Exploration in Economic History, 43 (January 2006), 153-76.
External links
- Round wood production trends
- Earth Repair Network Promoting plantation forestry.
- "Destroying the South" Criticism of industrial plantations.
- The NGO Rain Forest Movement
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments