Parental care refers to the level of investment provided by mothers and fathers to ensure the development and survival of their children. In most birds, parents invest heavily in their offspring as a joint effort, making the majority of them socially monogamous during the breeding season. This happens regardless of whether there is paternal uncertainty.
Video Parental care in birds
Origin
Birds originally branched off from theropod dinosaurs and experienced miniaturization of the body over a period of 50 million years. Anatomic changes are the rearrangement of body mass, adults retain teen features including large brain mass and eyes though smaller snouts (paedomorphism), and aerial abilities. (Michael S. Y. Lee, Andrea Cau, Darren Naish, and Gareth J. Dyke)
Archeopteryx is the first recorded fossil bird with feathers to evolve. Forelimb in Archeopteryx can be used for parentage care because enlarged feathers may be used to protect offspring from sunlight and to fly. (Carey, JR, and Adams J (2001)) old avials have been identified, including Anchiornis , Xiaotingia , and Aurornis .
Kavanau (1987) was the first to discover that the unique bi-parental treatments seen in modern birds may have evolved from extinct birds. They develop the ability to provide protection, guarding, maintaining and maintaining egg capability for their children. The evolution of homeothermy and aviation is most likely to occur in bi-parental birds with preschoolers. Kavanau says the birds that are still there (David J. Varricchio) evolved and learned to fly through evolution to access the nests more quickly. (Kavanau)
Van Rhijn (1984, 1990), Handford and Mares (1985), and Elzanowski (1985) were the first to announce the earliest form of parental care as a mono-old man care.
Wesolowsi (1994) contradicts Kavanau's argument by saying aviation evolved due to unproductive parental care as previously thought. As flight is being upgraded in the evolutionary stage, the lack of care of parents means that the growing number of large eggs requires a higher level of investment. This creates young who are able to fly immediately after the hatch known as precocial, in the form of unceremonious (male) care without assistance. The next evolutionary stage replaces this with parental care (with some exceptions). Ligon (1999) suggested with Vehrencamp (2000) that male incubation existed first and then gave way to sharing and eventually only female incubation.
Probability of evolution time (Kavanau):
Theropod dinosaurs -> Birds evolve with unique two parent care-> Bird birds fly home and fly
Burley and Johnson (2002), Tullberg et al. (2002), Prum (2002), and Varricchio et al. (1999) questioned the shift of male evolution from indifference to the care of men. They proposed such a Kavanau model that the first parent's care comes first which leads to the parent-breeding care of an extant bird
The origins of parental care in birds are still a controversial topic today. (Tomasz Wesolowski)
Maps Parental care in birds
Various modes of parental care
Bi-parent care
Bi-parental care is the most common form of birds, especially in passerines. Married couples alike contribute to feeding and keeping offspring. This occurs in about 85% of bird species. The benefits of hatchlings from reciprocal care at the expense of future reproductive success of parents. Every parent tries to find a partner who will not leave the nest and has a high quality that shows their parent's skills (eg decorative gestures). A good parent hypothesis states that birds can invest more energy into their own survival rate by choosing the ideal pair
The evolution of prospective couples to advertise their parent's power through ornamental cues (eg yellow chest patches in Iberian stone sparrows) is based on differential allocation hypotheses. This hypothesis states that the greater the decorative gestures a couple has, the more investments invested in their offspring. As a result of the bi-parental care, the offspring are usually stronger than the birds that are only treated by one parent in an Iberian stone sparrow. (Vicente GarcÃÆ'a-Navas)
Mother vs father care
In the care of bi-parents, men provide food and women are caretakers. Both ensure the survival of their offspring. The woman may take care of her child by covering them up to keep them warm, protecting them from the sun or from the rain and keeping them from predation. Men can also feed the females, which in turn spew food into chicks. In the red-eyed female vireos the role is reversed. Unmarried adults or teenagers on acorn woodpeckers contribute to care through collaboration with parents. (Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye)
Mono-parent care
Male-only treatment occurs in only 1% of bird species (about 90 species). Women-only treatment only occurs in 8% of species (about 772 species). (Andrew Cockburn) A hypothesis states that parents who invest less reproduction effort compared to their spouses, will have a higher chance of leaving because of less loss if successful offspring are not produced. However, in some birds (such as kite snails found in South America, the Caribbean and Florida), males and females sometimes compete where birds will leave the nest regardless of who has invested more into reproductive efforts. Robert Trivers (1972)
Parental care in polyandrous species
Polyandry treatment occurs in about 9% of bird species (about 852 species). (Andrew Cockburn) Two forms of polyandry are sequential and simultaneous polyandry. Polyandry sequentially refers to women's mating strategies used in certain situations. First, they will marry with one man and raise a child for a short time. Then they will mate with another man and take care of the clutch that produces more genetic diversity and the quantity of offspring per season. Women never incubate descendants unless males have been killed. Some examples of birds that practice sequential poliandry include spotted sandpipers and red-necked phalaropes. Temminck's duties, a bit of a task, a mountain plover, and a sanderling are very similar because the females put the egg clutch and the stud hatch it. The second clutch is laid out that women incubate themselves.
In Polyandry, a pair of females with many males (and one male pair with one female) and is a unique marriage system that occurs in less than 1% of all bird species. The role of parents is reversed and causes men to give most of the care given to offspring. The role of parents also causes the opposite in phenotypic differentiation (genetics) that produces more colorful and larger women than men.
Two major types of polyandry exist: simultaneous polyandry and sequential polyandry. A more rare subtype called simultaneous co-operative also exists in several species
In a polyandiri simultaneously, women will dominate a certain area containing several small nests with two or more men who care for their offspring. The role of parents is unique because women compete for men who do most of the parenting work. The North jacanas are actively practicing this in areas such as the Southern United States and from Mexico to Panama
Females will mate with males in the area often on the same day. In return, females will help defend the area. There is no copulation during the incubation period and for the first six weeks after the offspring hatch. If something happens to the egg, the female will mate with the male once more. This can lead to competition in some species
In co-operative polyandiri syndromically, multiple male partners with one female and mixed egg clutch (belonging to several males) are treated by the whole group. Species exhibiting this behavior include certain types of Acorn Woodpeckers and Hawks Harris
In sequential polyandry (the most common polyandry form) couples women with men and laying eggs. The woman then leaves the man to take care of the clutch while she repeats the process with another man. Species that exhibit this behavior include several types of red and red-necked phalaropes, and see sandy fish breeding in South Africa. (Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye)
Factors that affect parental care
Ecological conditions
The ratio of men and women affects the type and amount of care provided. With the increase in pairs available in some birds (such as rock sparrows), increased female desertion rates lead to more mono-parental care. When female female birds are exposed to a large number of male partners, about 50% of females leave their first nest when the children are on average 14.3 days. Dads manage to take over all the duties of parents (Pilastro).
Female birds can predetermine the gender of their children
Female birds are able to produce more species of birds that are more likely to survive in extreme conditions. In birds, female eggs determine the sex of a child, not a male sperm. In a zebra finch, a study shows the effect of food on the gender ratios of production. For females, egg production is a draining and exhausting process metabolically. It was found that the sex of eggs right after it had been laid and the amount of nutrients available for the developing embryo could be determined as well. Larger eggs means bigger young people who have higher survivability rates In a study of zebra finch birds, it was determined that those who were fed with lower quality produced lighter and less nutrient-rich eggs than zebra finches fed on higher-quality foods. Therefore, those who were given a lower-quality diet resulted in more boys and those who were given high-quality food produced more girls (larger eggs and nutrient-rich) because in nature, female offspring needed more food than they stud to survive and grow. Men need less food because they do not lay their eggs. Because zebra finch birds can increase the survivability rates of their species, this can be seen as an adaptation of pre-natal parenting care. (Nicholas B. Davies)
Time and temperature (homeothermy) of reproduction
A known trend indicates that most birds reproduce earlier if spring comes early with high temperatures. Climate change makes it difficult to consider the relationship between temperature and reproduction time. Visser et al. (2009) have attempted to find this association with a 6-year long trial in large breasts ( Parus major ). If spring comes three weeks early, birds are more likely to reproduce faster. This action is caused by the initial application of decorative cues. He found this to be a fact in both wild birds and captives. Higher spring early temperatures also cause higher levels of parental care given to offspring due to more commitment and less chance of exclusion from both parents. Since, parents find a partner to reproduce before this can be seen as an adaptation of parenting pre-natal parenting due to lack of desertion.
Benefits and parental care costs
Parental investments are any form of investment by parents that increase the rate of offspring survival (reproductive success) at the expense of parental or parental ability to transfer investment to a new mother. Costs must yield sufficient benefits to ensure the survival of present and future breeds. If parents invest too much parental care into the current parent, their future will be threatened or nonexistent. The ideal level of parental investment that will ensure the survival and optimal quality of both mains exist. David Lack (1958)
The parent size (number of eggs placed per clutch) is another factor that affects the quality and survival rate. To improve reproductive success during the lifetime of a partner, parents should effectively disseminate parental investment between the present and the future. G.C. Williams (1966)
If there is a higher feeding rate in birds such as the crimped hook ( Ficedula albicollis ), then there is an increase in parental investment during the breeding season. However, future reproductive success of the parent will decrease. (Gustafsson & Sutherland, 1988) The reason may be that the effort reserved for reproduction is reduced by the need to maintain this immune system leading to physiological conditions that inhibit proliferation. (Sheldon & Verhulst, 1996; Norris & Evans, 2000)
In most bird species, women invest in parental care more than men at the expense of reproductive success. If both parents contribute to feeding the young and keeping at the same level, the reproductive success of the parents increases temporarily together. Desertion by any partner will be a setback because the parent's investment will be diverted to find a new partner. A man often leaves first because internal fertilization allows men to impregnate and leave. Men rely heavily on the number of offspring for reproductive success
A hypothesis was tested in South America to see if bird species would respond more aggressively to adult predators (eagles) than their counterparts in the North because they are more concerned about future reproductive success due to smaller parent size. On the other hand, people in North America respond more aggressively to jay predators because they care more about their current mothers because of the larger size of the parent. (Cameron Ghalambor and Thomas Martin (2001))
Often parents change the level of parental care provided to manage the costs and benefits of parental care. Passerine species in North America have large broodstock sizes containing 4-6 breeds and a 50% adult survival rate, and they in South America have smaller host sizes containing 2-3 offspring and a 75% adult survival rate. Increased investment of parents (indicated by the number of trips made) also increases the threat of predation. The number of visits decreased in the presence of adult bird predators and hereditary predators were recorded in 5 bird species in the same study. Comparisons are made between the same species in North and South (pregnant, sprue, warbler, flycatcher and wren).
Parents can also vary parents' investment to meet current parent requirements. In 2011, the hihi species ( Notiomystis cincta ) were fed a sweet solution to make their mouth redder. The red mouth acts as an ornamental gesture that gives a healthy offspring signal to a potential partner. Experiments show that those given a sweet solution have an increased chance of creating additional clutches in the future during the same mating season. (Rose Thorogood and colleagues (2011)) Evolutionary advantages
Number of breeds driven by weak birds that release steroids
In the black-backed gulls ( Larus fuscus ) female gulls that live in bad conditions will usually give their chicks steroids cause higher survival rates in them. By comparing the androgen levels with the control group, it was found that women treated with better body condition produce eggs with lower androgen levels (such as testosterone). (Verboven et al. (2003)) This suggests that women with lower body conditions (associated with adverse conditions) provide steroid impulses in their children so they have a better chance of survival. This is contrary to the original Verboven hypothesis that the gulls in better conditions will produce these steroids. Black-backed seagulls deliver these androgens to their children through egg formation in the yolk. (Verboven et al. (2003)) Steroids offer the same opportunity for Black-backed birds to thrive in ideal and unfriendly conditions and serve as a form of parental care.
Anatomical and physiological excellence
After closer inspection of the egg yolk in some antibodies the birds eggs are mostly IgY (or IgG). The fetus of a growing bird uses an egg yolk that contains IgY. After hatching, young girls start creating IgY themselves but maternal antibodies will still affect growth and growth rates. IgY is very important to avoid problems that occur from a depressed immune system. In the case of a surgical bursectomy from a mother bird, helper T cells that normally attack pathogens become depressed. Young birds are at risk of disease and may have a lower survival rate depending on environmental conditions (Grindstaff 2003) Carotenoids in the yolk are responsible for red or yellow. They protect the underlying fetal tissue from free radicals in the environment. Protection against damage caused by lipids in birds is enhanced by vitamin E and other antioxidants infused with carotenoids and egg yolks. These same antioxidants also prevent the destruction of maternal antibodies (IgY) which are essential for survival rates and can be seen as forms of pre-natal parental care. (Grindstaff)
Methods of providing care
Iberian rock kite
There is a clear distinction between the roles of both parents in Iberian stone boulders. Females incubate eggs 11-14 days before hatching. Then, the females feed the boys while the men teach them to fly and leave the nest usually within just 18 days after birth. Men also feed the boy a little less than half the time, reducing the burden on both parents. Sparrows generally carry one food per trip and other times keep the nest. It has been commonly observed how these species come to the nest to look after their children when they are not carrying food, often as a preventive tactic to scare off predators. Sparrows lift their heads to show their yellow patches and make sounds while guarding. (RikÃÆ'³n, Amanda Garcia Del)
Shorebirds
Shorebirds birds are precocial to parents who offer low parental investment, but still qualify for offspring through collaborative polygamy. The success of future reproduction depends on changes in parental investments, where low investment leads to higher marriage opportunities and higher investment returns in lower marriage opportunities (lower future reproductive success). The sexual conflict hypothesis is more suited to results than the parent's investment hypothesis. (Gavin H. Thomas, TamÃÆ'¡s SzÃÆ' Â © kely)
Correlation between decorative gestures and parental care
Iberian rock kite ( Petronia petronia )
There is a positive correlation between decorative gestures and parental care invested in Iberian stone sparrows (Vincente Garcia-Navas). Males show more parental efforts if their female partner has a larger yellow chest patch. Also, larger nests belong to those who have men with larger yellow chests. There is also a link between bigger yellow breast patches and higher parental efforts but only from men. Men who mate with women with larger yellow chests have higher rates of visiting their children. Larger males grew up later and fed their children more than their smaller counterparts. Larger males are in no hurry to mate because they are in better shape and may consider their options. (RikÃÆ'³n, Amanda Garcia Del)
The fly flyer
Pied males older males with large size badges have a harder time to make the area when compared to those with smaller size badges. However, younger men with large size badges that hold the territory provide less parental care (feeding) than those who have smaller size badges and women. Total parental investment and future reproductive success between the two groups of men are not affected as women adjust their parents' investment to accommodate. The size of the big badges leads to increased male competitions to men as they shift their parents' investments to show off their badges during mating. (Anna QvarnstrÃÆ'Âμm).
See also
- Inserting desertions
References
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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