Staatliches Bauhaus ( German: ['? ta: tl? ÃÆ'§? s' ba ?? ha ? s] Ã, ( listen ) ), commonly known only as the Bauhaus , is a German art school operating from 1919 to 1933 that incorporates crafts and fine arts, and is renowned for its published and taught design approach.
Bauhaus was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. The German term Bauhaus - literally "build a house" - is understood as "School Building", but regardless of its name and the fact that its founder was an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an architectural department during the first years of its existence. Nonetheless, it was founded with the idea of ​​creating "total" artwork (Gesamtkunstwerk) in which all art, including architecture, will eventually be unified. The Bauhaus style then became one of the most influential streams in modern design, architecture and Modernist art, architectural design and education. The Bauhaus has a major influence on subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography.
The school is in three German cities: Weimar from 1919 to 1925, Dessau from 1925 to 1932 and Berlin from 1932 to 1933, under three different architects: Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928, Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from 1930 to 1933, when the school was closed by his own leadership under the pressure of the Nazi regime, which had been painted as the center of communist intellectualism. Although the school was closed, the staff continued to spread its idealistic teachings as they left Germany and emigrated throughout the world.
Change of place and leadership leads to constant shifts in focus, technique, instructor, and politics. For example, the pottery shop was stopped when the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, although it was an important source of income; when Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he turned it into a private school, and would not allow any Hannes Meyer supporters to attend.
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Bauhaus dan modernisme Jerman
The defeat of Germany in World War I, the fall of the German monarchy and the abolition of censorship under the new and liberal Weimar Republic, enabled an increase in radical experimentation in all the arts, which the old regime had suppressed. Many of Germany's left-wing views were influenced by cultural experiments that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influence can be exaggerated: Gropius does not share this radical view, and says that the Bauhaus is entirely apolitical. Equally important is the influence of the 19th century British designer William Morris, who argued that art must meet the needs of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function. Thus, the Bauhaus style, also known as the International Style, is characterized by the absence of ornamentation and by the harmony between the function of an object or its building and its design.
However, the most important influence on the Bauhaus was modernism, a cultural movement whose origins existed since the 1880s, and which had made its presence felt in Germany before the World War, despite the prevailing conservatism. The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and Bauhaus - radically simplified forms, rationality and functionality, and the idea that mass production can be reconciled with the artistic spirit of the individual - were already partially developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded. The German national designer organization Deutscher Werkbund was formed in 1907 by Hermann Muthesius to exploit the massive potential of mass production, with the mind to preserve the competitiveness of the German economy with Britain. In the first seven years, Werkbund was regarded as an authoritative body in design issues in Germany, and copied in other countries. Many fundamental questions about workmanship versus mass production, the relationship of usefulness and beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in common objects, and whether an appropriate form can exist, are debated among its 1,870 members (in 1914).
The whole movement of German architectural modernism is known as Neues Bauen. Beginning in June 1907, the pioneering industrial design work of Peter Behrens for the German power company AEG successfully integrated mass art and mass production on a large scale. He designs consumer products, standard parts, creates clean designs for corporate graphics, develops a consistent corporate identity, builds the modernist AEG Turbine Factory landmarks, and makes full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and steel that is open. Behrens was a founding member of Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer worked for him in this period.
The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist changed from emotional Expressionism to New Objectivity. A large group of working architects, including Erich Mendelsohn, Bruno Taut and Hans Poelzig, turned away from excessive experiments, and switched to rational, functional, and sometimes standardized buildings. Outside the Bauhaus, many other significant German-language architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic problems and material possibilities as schools. They also respond to the promise of "minimal shelter" written in the new Weimar Constitution. Ernst May, Bruno Taut, and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life is the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions such as Weissenhof Plantation, films, and sometimes fierce public debates.
Bauhaus and Vkhutemas
The Vkhutemas, Russian state art and engineering school founded in 1920 in Moscow, have been compared to the Bauhaus. Established a year after the Bauhaus school, Vkhutemas has a close resemblance to the German Bauhaus in its purpose, organization and scope. Both schools were the first to train the artist-designer in a modern way. Both schools are state-sponsored initiatives to combine craft traditions with modern technology, with basic courses in aesthetic principles, courses in color theory, industrial design, and architecture. Vkhutemas is a larger school than the Bauhaus, but less publicized outside the Soviet Union and consequently, less familiar in the West.
With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there are many exchanges between Vkhutemas and Bauhaus. Second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer attempted to arrange exchanges between the two schools, while Hinnerk Scheper of Bauhaus collaborated with various members of Vkhutein about the use of colors in architecture. In addition, the book El Lissitzky Russia: Architecture for the World Revolution published in German in 1930 shows some illustrations of the Vkhutemas/Vkhutein project there.
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History of Bauhaus
Weimar
The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar Arts Academy. Its roots lie in an arts and crafts school founded by the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906 and directed by Belgian Art Nouveau architect Henry van de Velde. When van de Velde was forced to resign in 1915 because he was Belgian, he suggested Gropius, Hermann Obrist, and August Endell as a possible successor. In 1919, following a delay caused by the destruction of World War I and the long debate over who should head the socio-economic institutions and meanings of art and applied art reconciliation (a problem that remains the definition throughout School existence), Gropius became director of the institution which integrates the two so-called Bauhaus. In a pamphlet for an April 1919 exhibition entitled "Exhibition of Unknown Architects", Gropius expressed his aim as "to create a union of new craftsmen, without class distinctions that increase arrogant barriers between artisans and artists." Neologism Gropius Bauhaus good reference build and BauhÃÆ'¼tte, premodern masonry union. The original intention was for Bauhaus to be a joint architecture school, craft school, and arts academy. In 1919 the Swiss painter Johannes Itten, German-American painter Lyonel Feininger, and German sculptor Gerhard Marcks, along with Gropius, comprised the Bauhaus faculty. In the following year, their ranks have expanded including German painters, sculptors and designers Oskar Schlemmer who led the theater workshop, and the Swiss painter Paul Klee, joined in 1922 by Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky. A tumultuous year at the Bauhaus, 1922 also saw Dutch painter Theo van Doesburg move to Weimar to promote De Stijl ("The Style"), and a visit to the Bauhaus by Russian artist and architect El Lissitzky.
From 1919 to 1922 the school was shaped by the pedagogical and aesthetic ideas of Johannes Itten, who taught the Vorkurs or "introductory course" which was the introduction to Bauhaus ideas. Itten is strongly influenced by his teachings by the idea of ​​Franz Ci? Ek and Friedrich Wilhelm August FrÃÆ'¶bel. He was also influenced in relation to aesthetics by the work of the Blaue Reiter group in Munich as well as the work of the Austrian Expressionist Oskar Kokoschka. The influence of German Expressionism favored by Itten is analogous in some respects to the art side of the ongoing debate. This influence culminated with the addition of founding member Der Blaue Reiter Wassily Kandinsky to the faculty and ended when Itten resigned in late 1922. Itten was replaced by Hungarian designer LÃÆ'¡szlÃÆ'³ Moholy-Nagy, who rewrote Vorkurs by leaning to direction New Objectivity favored by Gropius, which is analogous in some respects to the applied art side of the debate. Although this shift is important, it does represent a radical split from the past, as well as a small step in the broader and gradual socio-economic movement that has lasted since at least 1907 when van de Velde has been arguing for the basis of crafts for design while Hermann Muthesius has begun implementing industrial prototypes.
Gropius did not have to oppose Expressionism, and even himself in the same 1919 pamphlet who declared this "new union of craftsmen, without arrogance classes," describing "paintings and statues ascending to heaven out of the hands of a million artisans, the symbol of a new crystal of the faith of the future." However, in 1923, Gropius no longer brought up a picture of Romanesque cathedral that skyrocketed and aesthetically "VÃÆ'¶lkisch movements" are crafted by crafts, instead of stating "we want an architecture tailored to our world of machines, radios and fast cars." Gropius argues that a new period of history has begun with the end of war. He wants to create a new architectural style to reflect this new era. Styles in architecture and consumer goods should be functional, inexpensive and consistent with mass production. For this purpose, Gropius wants to reunite arts and crafts to arrive at top-grade functional products with artistic benefits. The Bauhaus issued a magazine called Bauhaus and a series of books called "BauhausbÃÆ'¼cher". Because the Weimar Republic lacks the amount of raw materials available to the United States and Britain, it has to rely on the skills of skilled labor and the ability to export innovative and high-quality goods. Therefore, the designers are needed and so is the new kind of art education. The school philosophy states that artists should be trained to work with industry.
Weimar is in the German state of Thuringia, and the Bauhaus school receives state support from the Haksias state government controlled by the Social Democrats. Schools in Weimar underwent political pressure from conservatives in Thuringian politics, increasingly after 1923 when political tensions increased. One condition placed on the Bauhaus in this new political environment is the work exhibition done at school. This condition was fulfilled in 1923 with the Bauhaus exhibit about the Haus am Horn experiment. The Ministry of Education put staff on a six-month contract and cut the school's funds by half. On 26 December 1924 Bauhaus issued a press release and arrangement of school closure for the end of March 1925. At this point they have been looking for alternative funding sources. After Bauhaus moved to Dessau, an industrial design school with teachers and staff less antagonistic to conservative political regimes remained in Weimar. The school was finally known as the University of Architecture Engineering and Civil Engineering, and in 1996 renamed the Bauhaus-University of Weimar.
Dessau
The Gropius design for the Dessau facility is a return to the futuristic Gropius of 1914 which has more in common with the lines of the International Fagus Factory style than the Neo-classical stripe of the Werkbund pavilion or the Safferfeld House VÃÆ'¶lkisch. During the years of Dessau, there was a tremendous change of direction for the school. According to Elaine Hoffman, Gropius has approached the Dutch architect Mart Stam to run a newly established architectural program, and when Stam rejects the position, Gropius turns to Stam's friends and colleagues in ABC group Hannes Meyer.
Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928, and took the Bauhaus with the two most significant building commissions, both of which still exist: the five apartment buildings in the town of Dessau, and the Bundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (Berndue Berndue Berlin). Meyer likes measurements and calculations in his presentation to clients, along with the use of off-the-shelf architectural components to reduce costs. This approach proves to be attractive to potential clients. The school changed its first profits under its leadership in 1929.
But Meyer also produced many conflicts. As a radical functionalist, he was impatient with the aesthetic program, and forced the resignation of Herbert Bayer, Marcel Breuer, and other old instructors. Although Meyer shifted his school orientation farther to the left than under Gropius, he did not want school to be a political tool of the left-wing party. He prevented the formation of student communist cells, and in an increasingly dangerous political atmosphere, this posed a threat to the existence of the Dessau school. Dessau mayor Fritz Hesse fired him in the summer of 1930. Dessau city council tried to convince Gropius to return as headmaster, but Gropius suggested Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Mies was appointed in 1930, and immediately interviewed every student, fired those who were considered unattached. Mies stopped making school items so schools could focus on teaching. Mies does not appoint a new faculty other than her believer, Lilly Reich. In 1931, the German National Socialist Workers Party (Nazi Party) became more influential in German politics. When they master the Dessau City Council they move to close the school.
Berlin
In late 1932, Mies rented a slum factory in Berlin (Birkbusch Street 49) to use as a new Bauhaus with her own money. The students and faculty rehabilitate the building, painting the inside of white. The school operates for ten months without further intervention from the Nazi Party. In 1933, the Gestapo closed the Berlin school. Mies protested the decision, eventually speaking with the head of the Gestapo, who agreed to allow the school to be reopened. However, immediately after receiving a letter allowing the opening of the Bauhaus, Mies and other faculties agreed to close the school voluntarily.
Although both the Nazi Party and Adolf Hitler did not have a coherent architectural policy before they came to power in 1933, Nazi writers such as Wilhelm Frick and Alfred Rosenberg had labeled the Bauhaus "no German" and criticized his modernist style, deliberately causing public controversy over issues such as roofing flat. In the early 1930s, they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for communists and social liberals. Indeed, a number of Communist students loyal to Meyer moved to the Soviet Union when he was dismissed in 1930.
Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on the Bauhaus had increased. The Nazi movement, from its beginnings, denounced the Bauhaus for "art degenerates," and the Nazi regime was determined to crack down on what it saw as foreign influence, possibly Jewish "cosmopolitan modernism". Despite Gropius's protest that as a war veteran and a patriot of his work having no subversive political intentions, Berlin Bauhaus was pressed to close in April 1933. Emigrants did succeed, however, in spreading the Bauhaus concept to other countries, including the "new Bauhaus" Chicago: Mies decided to emigrate to the United States for the post of director of the School of Architecture at the Armor Institute (now the Illinois Institute of Technology) in Chicago and to search for a development commission. The simple functional functionalism of stripped modernism, however, has caused some Bauhaus influence to live in Nazi Germany. When Hitler's chief engineer, Fritz Todt, began to open a new autobahn (highway) in 1935, many bridges and service stations were "examples of bold modernism" - among those who handed over designs were Mies van der Rohe.
Output architecture
The early Bauhaus paradox is that, although the manifesto states that the purpose of all creative activities is to build up, the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927. During the years under Gropius (1919-1927), he and his colleague Adolf Meyer saw no real difference between output from the architectural office and school. So the output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena, and the design of the competition for the Chicago Tribune Tower, which brought the attention of many schools. The definitive 1926 Bauhaus building in Dessau is also associated with Gropius. In spite of contributions to 1923 Haus am Horn, students' architectural works amount to unbuilt projects, interior finishing, and craft work such as cabinets, chairs and pottery.
In the next two years under Meyer, the focus of the architecture shifts from aesthetics and towards functionality. There is a large commission: one from the town of Dessau for five tightly designed "LaubenganghÃÆ'¤user" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for the Bundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes (Berndue Trade College) at Bernau bei Berlin. Meyer's approach is to examine user needs and scientifically develop design solutions.
Mies van der Rohe rejects Meyer's politics, its supporters, and its architectural approach. In contrast to Gropius's "important study", and Meyer's study of user requirements, Mies advocates "spatial implementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively means its own aesthetic adoption. Neither van der Rohe nor his Bauhaus disciples see any project built during the 1930s.
The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of the vast Weimar-era workplace housing is inaccurate. Two projects, apartment construction projects in Dessau and TÃÆ'¶rten row housing also in Dessau, fall into that category, but building housing workers is not the first priority of Gropius or Mies. These are Brunei Taut's Bauhaus associates, Hans Poelzig and especially Ernst May, as architects of the cities of Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt, entitled to be credited with thousands of socially progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany. The Taut Housing was built in southwest Berlin during the 1920s, close to U-Bahn stop Onkel Toms HÃÆ'¼tte, still occupied.
Impact
The Bauhaus had a profound impact on the trends of art and architecture in Western Europe, the United States, Canada and Israel in the decades after its destruction, as many of the artists involved escaped, or were exiled by the Nazi regime. Tel Aviv in 2004 was named a list of world heritage sites by the UN because of the abundance of Bauhaus architecture; there are about 4,000 Bauhaus buildings erected from 1933 onwards.
In 1928, Hungarian painter Alexander Bortnyik founded a design school in Budapest called Miihely (also "Muhely" or "Mugely"), which means "studio". Located on the seventh floor of a house on Nagymezo Road, it is meant to be a Hungarian equivalent with the Bauhaus. Literature sometimes refers to it - in a simplified way - as "Budapest Bauhaus". Bortnyik is a great admirer of LÃÆ'¡szlÃÆ'³ Moholy-Nagy and has met Walter Gropius in Weimar between 1923 and 1925. Moholy-Nagy himself teaches at Miihely. Victor Vasarely, an Op Art pioneer, studied at this school before setting up in Paris in 1930.
Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and Moholy-Nagy reunited in Britain during the mid-1930s to live and work on the Isokon project before the war overtook them. Gropius and Breuer went to teach at the Harvard Graduate School of Design and worked together before their professional split. Their collaboration resulted in The Aluminum City Terrace in New Kensington, Pennsylvania and Alan I W Frank House in Pittsburgh, among other projects. Harvard School was very influential in America in the late 1920s and early 1930s, producing students such as Philip Johnson, I. M. Pei, Lawrence Halprin and Paul Rudolph, among many others.
In the late 1930s, Mies van der Rohe settled back in Chicago, enjoying sponsorship from influential Philip Johnson, and became one of the world's leading architects. Moholy-Nagy also went to Chicago and founded the New Bauhaus school under the sponsors of industrialist and philanthropist Walter Paepcke. This school became the Institute of Design, part of the Illinois Institute of Technology. Printers and painters Werner Drewes is also largely responsible for bringing Bauhaus aesthetics to America and teaching at Columbia University and the University of Washington at St. Louis. Herbert Bayer, sponsored by Paepcke, moved to Aspen, Colorado to support the Aspen Paepcke project at the Aspen Institute. In 1953, Max Bill, together with Inge Aicher-Scholl and Otl Aicher, founded the Ulm Design School (Germany: Hochschule fÃÆ'¼r Gestaltung - HfG Ulm) in Ulm, Germany, a design school in the Bauhaus tradition. The school is famous for incorporating semiotics as a field of study. The school closed in 1968, but the concept of "Ulm Model" continues to influence international design education.
The influence of Bauhaus on design education is significant. One of Bauhaus's main aims is to unite art, craft, and technology, and this approach is incorporated into the Bauhaus curriculum. The Bauhaus structure Vorkurs (preliminary course) reflects a pragmatic approach to integrating theory and application. In their first year, students learn basic elements and design principles and color theory, and experiment with different materials and processes. This approach to design education is a common feature of architecture and design schools in many countries. For example, the Shillito Design School in Sydney stands as the unique link between Australia and the Bauhaus. The colors and syllabus of Shillito Design School design are firmly supported by Bauhaus theory and ideology. The first year basic course imitates Vorkurs and focuses on design elements and principles plus color theory and applications. The founder of the school, Phyllis Shillito, who opened in 1962 and closed in 1980, firmly believes that "A student who has mastered the basic principles of design, can design everything from dresses to kitchen stoves".
One of the most important contributions of Bauhaus is in the field of modern furniture design. The ubiquitous Cantilever Seats and the Wassily Seats designed by Marcel Breuer are two examples. (Breuer was eventually defeated in a legal battle in Germany with Dutch architect/designer Mart Stam on the rights to a cantilever patent.Although Stam had worked on the design of the Bauhaus exhibition in 1923 in Weimar, and the lecturers at the Bauhaus later in the 1920s, officially associated with the school, and he and Breuer have been working independently on the cantilever concept, leading to a patent dispute.) The only real most profitable product from Bauhaus is its wallpaper.
The physical plant in Dessau survived World War II and operated as a design school with several architectural facilities by the German Democratic Republic. This includes direct stage production at the Bauhaus theater under the name BauhausbÃÆ'¼hne ("Bauhaus Stage"). After the reunification of Germany, the reorganized schools continued in the same building, without significant continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s. In 1979 Bauhaus-Dessau College began organizing graduate programs with participants from all over the world. This effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation, established in 1974 as a public institution.
The later evaluation of the Bauhaus design creed is critical of the false recognition of the human element, the recognition of "... an unattractive aspect of the Bauhaus as a utopian projection characterized by a mechanical view of human nature... The hygiene of houses without home atmosphere."
White City
White City Tel Aviv (Hebrew: ???? ????? ?, Ha-Ir HaLevana ) refers to the collection more than 4,000 Bauhaus or International style buildings built in Tel Aviv from the 1930s by German Jewish architects who emigrated to the British Mandate in Palestine after the advent of the Nazis. Tel Aviv has the largest number of buildings in any city style in the world. In 2003, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) proclaimed the White City of the White City as a World Cultural Heritage site, as "a remarkable example of new city planning and architecture in the early twentieth century. 20. "
Founded in 2000, Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv is an organization dedicated to the documentation of the ongoing architectural heritage. In 2003, the company organized an exhibition on architecture preservation that showcased 25 buildings. To advance the architectural culture of the city, the small Bauhaus Museum opened in Tel Aviv in 2008, designed by Israeli architect Ron Arad.
Bauhaus staff and students
People who are educated, or who teach or work in other capacities, in the Bauhaus.
See also
- Art Deco Architecture
- Bauhaus Archive
- Tel Aviv Bauhaus Center
- Bauhaus Dessau Foundation
- Bauhaus Museum, Tel Aviv
- The Bauhaus Museum, Weimar
- Constructivist architecture
- The expressionist architecture
- Forms follow the function
- Haus am Horn
- IIT Institute of Design
- International style (architecture)
- Max-Liebling House, Tel Aviv
- Modern architecture
- Neues Sehen (New Vision)
- New Objectivity (architecture)
- Ulm School of Design
Footnote
- a The closing, and Mies van der Rohe's response, are fully documented at Elaine Architects Hochman's luck .
References
Bibliography
- Oskar Schlemmer. Tut Schlemmer, Editor. The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer . Translated by Krishna Winston. Wesleyan University Press, 1972. ISBNÃ, 0-8195-4047-1
- Stefan Boness, "Tel Aviv - White City", Jovis, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-939633-75-4
- Magdalena Droste, Peter Gossel, Editor. Bauhaus , Taschen America LLC, 2005. ISBNÃ, 3-8228-3649-4
- Marty Bax. Bauhaus Lecture Notes 1930-1933. The theory and practice of architectural training at Bauhaus, based on lecture notes made by former Dutch students and architects Bauhaus J.J. van der Linden from the curriculum Mies van der Rohe . Amsterdam, Architectura & amp; Natura 1991. ISBNÃ, 90-71570-04-5
- Anja Baumhoff, World Gendered Bauhaus. Political Power at the Main Art Institute of Weimar Republic, 1919-1931. Peter Lang, Frankfurt, New York 2001. ISBN 3-631-37945-5
- Boris Friedewald, Bauhaus , Prestel, Munich, London, New York 2009. ISBN: 978-3-7913-4200-9
- Catherine Weill-Rochant, "Bauhaus": Architektur in Tel Aviv , Rita H. Gans. Ed., Kiriat Yearim, Zurich, 2008 (Germany and France)
- 'Tel Aviv School: rationalism is constrained' (Catherine Weill-Rochant) Journal of DOCOMOMO (Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and environment of the modern movement), April 2009.
- Peder Anker (January 1, 2010). From Bauhaus to Ecohouse: A History of Ecological Design . LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-3551-8 . Retrieved May 15 2011 .
- Kirsten Baumann: "Bauhaus Dessau: Architectural Design Concept", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-939633-11-2
- Monica Markgraf (Ed.): "Archeology of Modernism: Renovation of Bauhaus Dessau", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-936314-83-0
- Torsten Blume/Burghard Duhm (Eds.): "Bauhaus.Theatre.Dessau: Change of Scene", JOVIS Verlag Berlin, ISBN 978-3-936314-81-6
- Eric Cimino. Student Life in Bauhaus, 1919-1933 . MA Thesis, UMass-Boston, 2003.
External links
- 100 years of Bauhaus
- Bauhaus in Curlie (based on DMOZ)
- Definition of Tate art glossary for Bauhaus
- The Manifesto of Staatliches Bauhaus by Walter Gropius
- Fostinum: Photos and artwork from Bauhaus
- Seek Help for archives of Bauhaus student work, 1919-1933
- Seek Help for archives of the Bauhaus typography collection, 1919-1937
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