Learning Theory is a conceptual framework that describes how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as previous experiences, all play a role in how the understanding, or worldview, is acquired or altered and knowledge and skills are maintained.
Behaviorists view learning as a conditioning aspect and advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators embracing cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in behavior is too narrow, and learns the learner rather than their environment - and in particular the complexity of human memory. Those who support constructivism believe that the learner's ability to learn depends on what they already know and understand, and the acquisition of knowledge must be an individually designed construction process. Transformative learning theory focuses on the often necessary changes required in the prejudices and worldviews of the world. Geographic learning theory focuses on the ways context and environment shape the learning process.
Beyond the field of educational psychology, techniques for directly observing brain function during the learning process, such as potential potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in the neuroscience of education. The theory of multiple intelligences, in which learning is seen as an interaction between the dozens of different functional areas in each brain with the strengths and weaknesses of each particular individual, has also been proposed, but empirical research has found the theory to be unsupported by evidence.
Video Learning theory (education)
Filosofi pendidikan
Teorisi klasik
Plato
Plato (428 BC-347 BC) posed the question: How does one learn something new when the topic is new to the person? This question may seem trivial; However, think of people like computers. The question then becomes: How does the computer take factual information without prior programming? Plato answers his own question by stating that knowledge is present at birth and all information learned by a person is merely the memory of something that the previous soul has learned, called the Theory of Contemplation or Platonic epistemology. This answer can be justified further by a paradox: If someone knows something, they do not have to question it, and if someone does not know something, they do not know to question it. Plato says that if a person does not know something before, then they can not learn it. He describes learning as a passive process, in which information and knowledge are ironed into the psyche from time to time. However, Plato's theory raises more questions about knowledge: If we can only learn something when we already have an impressed knowledge of our souls, then how does our soul gain that knowledge in the first place? Plato's theory can seem convoluted; However, the classical theory can still help us understand current knowledge.
Locke
John Locke (1632-1704) offers answers to Plato's questions as well. John Locke offers the "empty slate" theory in which humans are born into a world without innate knowledge. He admits that something must be present, however. This something, for John Locke, seems to be a "mental power". Locke sees these powers as the biological abilities of babies born, similar to how babies know how biological functions are born. So once the baby enters the world, he immediately has experience with his environment and all of the experience is transcribed to the baby's "slate". All these experiences eventually lead to complex and abstract ideas. This theory can still help teachers understand their students' learning today.
Maps Learning theory (education)
Educational psychology
Behavioral analysis
The term "behaviorism" was coined by John Watson (1878-1959). Watson believes the behaviorist view is a purely experimental branch of the natural sciences with the aim of predicting and controlling behavior. In an article in Psychological Review he states that, "The theoretical objectives are predictions and behavior controls, and introspection does not form an important part of his method, nor does the scientific value of the data depend on the readiness they use for interpretation in terms of consciousness. "
Methodological Behaviorism is based on the theory of only explaining public events, or observable behavior. B.F. Skinner introduces another type of behaviorism called radical behaviorism, or behavioral conceptual analysis, based on theory also describing personal events; in particular, thoughts and feelings. Radical behaviorism radically forms conceptual pieces of behavior analysis.
In behavioral analysis, learning is the acquisition of new behaviors through conditioning and social learning.
Learn and condition
There are three types of conditioning and learning:
- Classical conditioning, where behavior becomes a reflex response to antecedent stimuli.
- Operant conditioning, in which antecedent stimulation results from consequences that follow behavior through reward (punishment) or punishment.
- Social learning theory, in which behavioral observation is followed by modeling.
Ivan Pavlov invents classical conditioning. She observes that if dogs come to associate food delivery with white lab coats or ringing bells, they produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of food. Classical conditioning considers this form of learning the same, either in dogs or in humans. Operant conditioning reinforces this behavior with rewards or punishment. Prizes will increase the likelihood of repetitive behavior, the penalty reduces the odds. Social learning theory observes behavior and is followed by modeling.
The three learning theories form the basis of applied behavioral analysis, the application of behavioral analysis, which uses antecedents to be analyzed, functional analysis, behavioral reimbursement strategies, and often data collection and reinforcement to change behavior. The old practice is called behavior modification, which uses only the assumption of antecedents and the consequences for changing behavior without acknowledging conceptual analysis; analyzing behavioral functions and teaching new behaviors that will serve the same function is never relevant in behavior modification.
Behaviorists view the learning process as behavioral change, and set the environment to get the desired response through devices such as behavioral goals, Competence-based learning, and skills development and training. Educational approaches such as Early Intensive Behavioral Interventions, curriculum-based measurements, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.
Learning transfer
The transfer of learning is the idea that what a person learns at school, somehow, leads to a different situation from a certain time and a certain setting. Transfer is one of the first phenomena tested in educational psychology. Edward Lee Thorndike was a pioneer in transfer research. He found that although transfer is very important to learn, it is a rare phenomenon. In fact, he held an experiment in which he had a subject to estimate the size of a particular shape and then he would change his form. He found that previous information did not help the subject; otherwise it inhibits their learning.
One explanation for why transfers do not occur often involves surface structures and deep structures. Surface structure is the way the problem is framed. The deep structure is the steps to the solution. For example, when a math story problem changes the context of asking how much it costs to recycle the page how much it costs to polish a table, they have different surface structures, but the steps to get the answer are the same. However, many people are more affected by surface structures. In fact, the surface structure is not important. Nonetheless, people are concerned with it because they believe it provides background knowledge on how to do the problem. As a result, this interferes with their understanding of the deep structure of the problem. Even if one tries to concentrate on deep structures, transfers may still not work because deep structures are usually unclear. Therefore, the surface structure blocks the ability of people to see the deep structure of the problem and transfer the knowledge they have learned to produce solutions to new problems.
The pedagogy of learning today focuses on conveying rote knowledge, independent of meaningful contexts. Therefore, students often struggle to transfer this independent information into other aspects of their education. Students need more than an abstract concept and complete knowledge; they should be exposed to learning practiced in the context of authentic activities and cultures. Cognitive criticism lies, however, to argue that by discrediting stand-alone information, the transfer of knowledge across contextual boundaries becomes impossible. There must be a balance between putting knowledge while also holding a deep material structure, or an understanding of how one knows the information.
Some theorists argue that the transfer does not occur at all. They believe that students change what they have learned into a new context. They say that transfers are too passive. They believe students, by contrast, change their knowledge in an active way. Students not only bring knowledge of the class, but they build knowledge in ways that they can understand on their own. Learners alter the information they have learned to make it better adapt to the changing context they use knowledge in. This transformation process can occur when a learner feels motivated to use knowledge - however, if students do not find the necessary transformations, it is unlikely that knowledge will ever changed
Techniques and benefits of learning transfer
There are many different conditions that affect the transfer of learning in the classroom. These conditions include task features, learner features, organizational features and the social context of the activity. Task characteristics include practice through simulation, problem-based learning, and the knowledge and skills to implement the new plan. The characteristics of learners include their ability to reflect on past experiences, their ability to participate in group discussions, practice skills, and participate in written discussions. All unique features contribute to the student's ability to use learning transfers. There are structural techniques that can aid the transfer of learning in the classroom. This structural strategy includes embracing and bridging.
Hugging using a technique simulates an activity to encourage reflexive learning. An example of embracing strategy is when a student practices teaching a lesson or when a student's role plays with another student. These examples encourage critical thinking that engages students and help them understand what they are learning - one of the goals of learning transfer and the desired difficulty.
Bridging is when instruction encourages thinking abstractly by helping to identify the relationship between ideas and analyze the connection. An example is when a teacher lets students analyze their past test results and how they got the results. This includes the amount of study time and learning strategies. Looking at their past learning strategies can help them generate strategies to improve performance. These are some ideas that are important for success embracing and bridging practices.
There are many benefits of learning transfer in the classroom. One of the main benefits is the ability to quickly learn new tasks. It has many real life applications like language and speech processing. Transfer of learning is also very useful in teaching students to use higher cognitive thinking by applying their background knowledge to new situations.
Cognitivism
Gestalt Theory
The cognitive theory grew out of Gestalt psychology. Gestalt psychology was developed in Germany in the early 1900s by Wolfgang Kohler and brought to America in the 1920s. The German word Gestalt is roughly equivalent to the English or organization configuration and emphasizes the whole human experience. For years, Gestalt psychologists gave demonstrations and explained principles to explain the way we organize our sensations into perceptions. Matt Wertheimer, co-founder of Gestalt Theory, observes that sometimes we interpret movements when there is no movement at all. For example: a powered sign used at a supermarket to show that the store is open or closed can be seen as a sign with "blinking lights". However, the lights are not completely lit. The lights have been programmed to flash quickly at their respective speeds. Perceived as a whole, the sign blinks. Perceived individually, the lights are off and switched on at a specified time. Another example of this is a brick house: Overall, this is seen as a standing structure. However, it actually consists of many smaller parts, which are individual bricks. People tend to see things from a holistic point of view rather than breaking them into subunits.
In Gestalt's theory, psychologists say that instead of gaining knowledge of what lies ahead of us, we often learn by understanding the relationship between what is new and old. Because we have a unique perspective on the world, humans have the ability to produce their own learning experiences and interpret information that may or may not be the same for others.
Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for relying too heavily on open behavior to explain learning. They propose seeing patterns rather than separate events. The Gestalt learning view has been incorporated into what was then labeled cognitive theories . The two main assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that the memory system is an actively organized information processor and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Gestalt theory believes that to learn to happen, prior knowledge must exist on the topic. When learners apply their initial knowledge to advanced topics, learners can understand the meaning in advanced topics, and learning can happen. The cognitive theory sees beyond behavior to consider how human memory serves to promote learning, and an understanding of short-term memory and long-term memory is important for educators who are influenced by cognitive theory. They view learning as an internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory and perception) in which educators focus on building intelligence and cognitive development. Individual students are more important than the environment.
Other cognitive theories
After memory theory such as Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model was established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive learning frameworks began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics such as cognitive load and information processing theory. Learning theories play a role in influencing instructional design. Cognitive theory is used to explain topics such as acquisition of social roles, intelligence and memory associated with age.
At the end of the 20th century, cognition lies emerging as a theory that recognizes current learning as primarily the transfer of decontextual and formal knowledge. Bredo (1994) describes cognition as a "shift in focus from individuals in the environment to individuals and the environment". In other words, individual cognition must be considered closely related to the context of socially constructed social interaction and meaning. Learning through this perspective, which is known and performed becomes inseparable, becomes valid and intact.
Most educational students receive confined to school culture, regardless of authentic culture outside of education. The curriculum framed by located cognitions can bring knowledge to life by embedding the material learned in a culture that is familiar with students. For example, formal syntax and abstract math problems can be changed by placing traditional mathematical problems in practical story problems. This presents an opportunity to meet the appropriate balance of locally located and transferable knowledge. Lampert (1987) managed to do this by asking students to explore sustainable mathematical concepts with their background knowledge. He does it using money, which all students know, and then develops lessons to incorporate more complex stories that allow students to see solutions as well as make their own. In this way, knowledge becomes active, evolves as students participate and negotiate their way through new situations.
Constructivism
Founded by Jean Piaget, constructivism emphasizes the importance of active involvement of learners in building knowledge for themselves. Students are considered to use background knowledge and concepts to assist them in obtaining new information. As they approach the new information, learners face a loss of balance with their previous understanding, and this demands a change in cognitive structure. This change effectively combines the previous and new information to form a better cognitive scheme. Constructivism can be based on subjective and subjective. Under the theory of radical constructivism, created by Ernst von Glasersfeld, understanding depends on one's subjective interpretation of experience as opposed to objective "reality". Similarly, William Cobern's idea of ​​contextual constructivism involves the impact of culture and society on experience.
Constructivism asks why students do not study deeply by listening to teachers, or reading from textbooks. To design an effective teaching environment, he believes a person needs a good understanding of what children already know when they come to class. The curriculum should be designed in a way that is based on students' background knowledge and allowed to develop with them. Start with complex issues and teach basic skills while solving this problem. John Dewey's learning theories, Maria Montessori, and David A. Kolb serve as the basis for applying constructivist learning theory in the classroom. Constructivism has many variations such as active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building, but all versions promote student free exploration within a specific framework or structure. Teachers act as facilitators who encourage students to discover principles for themselves and to build knowledge by working on open-ended questions and solving real-world problems. To do this, a teacher should encourage curiosity and discussion among his students and promote their autonomy. In the scientific field in the classroom, constructivist teachers provide raw data and physical materials for students to work and analyze.
Transformative learning theory
The theory of transformative learning seeks to explain how humans revise and reinterpret meaning. Transformative learning is a cognitive process that influences change in terms of reference. The frame of reference defines our view of the world. Emotions are often involved. Adults tend to reject any ideas that do not fit their specific values, associations, and concepts.
Our terms of reference consist of two dimensions: the habits of the mind and the point of view. Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are more difficult to change from the point of view. Mind habits affect our point of view and the thoughts or feelings associated with them, but the viewpoint may change over time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback. Transformative learning occurs by discussing with others "the reasons presented to support competing interpretations, by critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative viewpoints". When circumstances permit, transformative learners move towards a more inclusive, discriminatory, reflective, and integrative framework of experience.
Neuroscience education
Universities in America such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins, and the University of Southern California began offering majors and degrees dedicated to neuroscience education or neuro education in the first decade of the 21st century. Such research seeks to link the understanding of the brain process with classroom instruction and experience. Neuroeducation analyzes biological changes in the brain from processing new information. It looks at what environmental, emotional, and social situations are best for helping the brain store and store new information through the neuron liaison - and should keep the dendrites from reabsorbing, losing information. The 1990s were defined as the "Decade of the Brain", and advancement occurred in neuroscience at a very rapid pace. Three dominant methods for measuring brain activity are potential related to events, functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography (MEG).
The integration and application for education from what we know about the brain was reinforced in 2000 when the American Federation of Teachers stated: "It is important that we identify what science tells us about how people learn to improve the education curriculum. What is interesting about this new field in education is that modern brain imaging techniques now allow, in a sense, to observe the brain as it is learned, and then the question arises: can the results of neuro-scientific studies of the brain as they learn are useful inform the practice in the area this? Neuroscience is still young. The researchers hope that new technologies and observation ways will produce new scientific evidence that helps refine the paradigm that students need and how they learn well. In particular, this can bring in more informed strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities.
Formal and mental discipline
All individuals have the ability to develop mental discipline and attention skills, both of which go hand in hand. Mental discipline is immense in shaping what people do, say, think and feel. It is essential in terms of information processing and involves the ability to recognize and respond appropriately to new things and information that people have found, or recently taught. Mindfulness is important for the learning process in many aspects. Being aware means being present with and engaging in whatever you do at any given time. Being conscious can help us to think critically, feel, and understand the new information we are feeling. The formal disciplinary approach seeks to develop causality between the progress of the mind by exercising it through the exposure of abstract school subjects such as science, language and mathematics. With repeated exposure of students to these particular subjects, some scholars feel that the acquisition of knowledge related to science, language and mathematics is a "secondary interest", and believes that the reinforcement and further development of the mind that this curriculum provides holds far-reaching significance greater than. to advanced learners in the long run. D.C. Phillips and Jonas F. Soltis gave some skepticism to this idea. Their skeptical attitude comes largely from the feeling that the relationship between formal discipline and the progress of the mind as a whole is not as strong as some people say. They illustrate their skepticism by arguing that it is foolish to assume that people are better in life, or in performing certain tasks, for taking a particular course, but not related.
Multiple intelligence
The existence of multiple intelligences is proposed by psychologist Howard Gardner, which shows that various types of intelligence exist in humans. This is a theory that has become a trend in continuous professional development training (CPD) for teachers. However, the theory of multiple intelligences is often cited as an example of pseudoscience because it has no empirical or falsifiability evidence.
Multimedia learning
Multimedia learning refers to the use of visual and auditory material that may include video, computer and other information technologies. Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles that determine the effective use of multimedia in learning, with an emphasis on the use of both visual and auditory channels for information processing.
The auditory channel corresponds to the information being heard, and the visual channel processes the information viewed. The visual channel holds less information than the auditory channel. If both visual and auditory channels are presented with information, more knowledge is maintained. However, if too much information is not being processed enough, and long-term memory is not obtained. Multimedia learning seeks to give instructors the ability to stimulate visual and auditory channels of learners, resulting in better progress.
Using online games to learn
Many educators and researchers believe that information technology can bring innovation to traditional instructional instruction. Teachers and technologists are looking for new and innovative ways to design student-centered learning environments effectively, trying to engage more learners in the learning process. Claims have been made that online gaming has the potential to teach, train and educate and they are an effective means of learning skills and attitudes that are not so easy to learn by memorizing.
Much research has been done in identifying the effectiveness of learning in game-based learning. Characteristics of learners and cognitive learning outcomes have been identified as key factors in research on game implementation in educational settings. In the process of learning the language through online games, there is a strong relationship between the learner's previous knowledge of the language and their cognitive learning outcomes. For people with previous language knowledge, the effectiveness of learning from this game is much more than that of not having the same language knowledge.
Other learning theories
Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes. For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn. Connectivism is the latest network learning theory, which focuses on learning as making connections. Learning as a Network (LaaN) theory is built on connectivism, complexity theory, and double-loop learning. It starts from the learner and views learning as the ongoing creation of the personal knowledge network (PKN).
Learning styles theory
Learning style theorists propose that individuals learn in different ways, that there are different learning styles and that the preferred learning style of learning leads to faster and more satisfying improvement. However, current research has not been able to find solid scientific evidence to support the main place of learning style theory.
Informal and post-modern theory
In theory that uses cognitive restructuring, the informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain a broader understanding of concepts. New knowledge can not be told to the students, it believes, but the current student knowledge must be challenged. In this way, students adjust their ideas to be more like actual theories or concepts. Using this method, students gain a broad understanding that is taught and then more willing to learn and maintain the specificity of the concept or theory. This theory is more in tune with the idea that teaching the subject's concepts and language should be divided into several steps.
Other informal learning theories see the source of motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation can create more independent learning, but schools undermine intrinsic motivation. Critics argue that the average student's learning in isolation works significantly less well than those who study with collaboration and mediation. Students learn through talks, discussions, and arguments.
Educational anthropology
Philosophical anthropology
According to Theodora Polito, "every educational theory is well constructed in the center of anthropological philosophy," which is "a philosophical reflection on some basic human problem." Philosophical anthropology is the exploration of human nature and humanity. Aristotle, an early influence on the field, considers human nature as "rational savagery," in which humans are closely related to other animals but are still separated by their ability to form rational thought. Philosophical anthropology extends these ideas by explaining that rationality is, "determined by the biological and social conditions in which human life is embedded." A fully developed learning theory addresses some of the "basic human problems" by examining these biological and social conditions to understand and manipulate humanity's rationality in the context of learning.
Philosophical anthropology is evident in behaviorism, which requires an understanding of humanity and human nature to affirm that the similarities between humans and other animals are very important and influential on the learning process. Cognition Located focuses on how humans interact with each other and their environment, which would be considered a "social condition" explored in the field of philosophical anthropology. Transformative learning theory operates on the assumption that humans are rational beings capable of examining and redefining perspectives, something highly considered in philosophical anthropology.
The awareness and understanding of philosophical anthropology contributes to greater understanding and practice of each theory of learning. In some cases, philosophy can be used to explore further and define uncertain terms in the field of education. Philosophy can also be a vehicle for exploring educational goals, which can greatly influence the theory of education.
Criticism
Critics of learning theory that seek to replace traditional educational practices claim that such theories are unnecessary; that attempts to understand the learning process through the construction of theories create problems and impede personal freedom.
See also
- Andragogy learning theory
- Cognitivism (learning theory)
- Connectivism (learning theory)
- Constructivism (learning theory)
- Cultural history psychology
- Evidence-based education
- Theory of instruction
- Instructional design
- Kinesthetic learning
- Learn by teaching
- Learning environment
- Study room
- Science, technology, society, and environmental education
- About speeding up the learning process
- Cognitive acceleration
- Separate repetitions
- Incremental reading
- About the memory and learning mechanism
- The neural network in the brain
- Sleep and learn
- latent learning
- Memory merge
- Short-term memory versus working memory
- Long-term memory
- Difficulty desired
- Declarative memory versus procedural memory
- Cerebellum and motor lessons
- About learning theories related to learning in class
- Contemporary Education Psychology/Chapter 2: Learning Process
References
45. Teaching for Transfer of Learning. Thomas, Ruth; National Center for Research in Vocational Education, Berkeley, CA.. 93 NCRVE, December 1992.
46. ​​â € <â €
Further reading
- Leonard, David (2002). learning theory, A to Z . Westport, Conn: Oryx Press. ISBN: 1573564133.
- Merriam, Sharan (2007). Study in adult a comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ISBN: 9780470229224.
External links
- Social Science Research Network. How to Become a Master's Teacher by Understanding Learning Neurobiology
- ERIC Digest. How People Learn (and What Technology May Be Done With It)
- Learning Design Learning Theory
- Wiki learning theory Learning theory
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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