The gray wolf ( Canis lupus ), also known as wood wolf , west wolf , or simply, wolf , is the original dog of the desert and remote areas of Eurasia and North America. It is the largest surviving family member, with an average male 43-45 kg (95-99 pounds) and female 36-38.5 kg (79-85 pounds). Like the red wolf, it is distinguished from other Canis species with its larger size and less spiky features, especially on the ears and muzzle. The winter feathers are long and bushy and dominated by gray, though almost pure white, red, and brown to black also occur. World Mammal Species (3rd ed., 2005), a standard reference work in zoology, recognizing 38 subspecies of C. lupus ..
Gray wolf is the second most specialized member of the genus Canis , after the Ethiopian wolf, as morphologic adaptations show for large prey hunting, more gregarious nature, and highly developed expressive behavior. It is still closely related to smaller species of Canis , such as the eastern wolf, coyote, and golden jackal, to produce a fertile hybrid. It is the only Canis species that has a range covering the Old World and the New World, and originated from Eurasia during the Pleistocene, colonizing North America on at least three separate occasions during Rancholabrean. It is a social animal, traveling in a nuclear family composed of married couples, accompanied by the couple's adult offspring. Gray wolves are usually the top predators in all of its ranks, with only humans and tigers being a serious threat to it. It feeds mainly on large ungulates, although it also feeds on small animals, livestock, carcasses, and garbage.
Gray wolf is one of the most famous and most studied animals in the world, with probably more books written about it than other wildlife species. It has a long history of relationships with humans, has been hated and hunted in most pastoral communities for its attacks on livestock, whereas instead it is respected in some agrarian societies and hunter-gatherers. Despite the wolf's fears seeping in many human societies, the majority of recorded attacks on people have been attributed to rabid animals. Non-rabies wolves have attacked and killed people, especially children, but this is rare, since wolves are relatively few, living far from people, and have developed the fear of humans from hunters and shepherds.
Video Gray wolf
Etymology
The English 'Wolves' are derived from Old English wulf , which according to itself comes from the Proto-Germanic * wulfaz language. Latin lupus is Sabine's loan word. Both come from Proto-Indo-European root * wlq w os / * luk w os .
Maps Gray wolf
Taxonomy and evolution
Taxonomy
The species Canis lupus was first recorded by Carl Linnaeus in his book Systema Naturae in 1758, with the Latin classification translated into the English words "wolf dog". The thirty-seven subspecies of Canis lupus are listed under the common name defined "wolf" in the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005. The nominating subspecies are the Eurasian wolf ( Canis lupus lupus ), also known as the common wolf. Subspecies include domestic dog, dingo, eastern wolf and red wolf, but list C. l. italicus and C. l. communis as a synonym of C. l. lupus . However, the classification of some either species or subspecies has recently been challenged.
Evolution and relationship with dogs
The evolution of the wolf occurred during the geological time scale of 800,000 years, altering the first middle morphologically recognized mistological wolf specimen similar to Canis lupus into today's dog, dingo, and gray wolf. Ecological factors including habitat types, climate, prey specialization and predatory competition will greatly affect the genetic structure of the wolf population and cranio-dental plasticity. Wolves go through the population bottleneck 20,000 years before now (YBP), which shows that many wolf populations have become extinct at the time that coincides with the Last Glacial Maximum and the expansion of modern humans around the world with their technology to capture the big game. Domestic dogs are the most abundant large carnivores, and descendants of one of the extinct wolf populations.
Population structure
In 2013, a genetic study found that wolf populations in Europe are split along the north-south axis and form five main groups. Three clusters were identified occupying southern and central Europe in Italy, the Dinaric-Balkans, the Carpathians. Two other groups identified occupying northern-central Europe and the grasslands of Ukraine. The Italian wolves consist of isolated populations with low genetic diversity. Wolves from Croatia, Bulgaria, and Greece form the Dinaric-Balkan group. Wolves from Finland, Latvia, Belarus, Poland, and Russia form a north-central European cluster, with wolves from the Carpathians coming from a mixture of wolves from the north-central group and the Dinaric-Balkan group. Wolves from the Carpathians are more like wolves than Pontic-Caspian Steppe than wolves from north-central Europe. These groups may be the result of expansion of glacial refugia, adaptation to the local environment, and fragmentation of landscapes and killing of wolves in some areas by humans.
By 2016, two genetic studies of North American gray wolves have found that they make up six distinct genetically and ecologically separate ecotoxes from other populations of different habitats. These six wolf ecotypes are named the West Forest, Boreal Forest, Arctic, High Arctic, Baffin, and British Columbia. The studies found that rainfall and average daily temperature range were the most influential variables. This finding is consistent with previous research that morphology is affected by rainfall and that vegetation and habitat types affect wolf differences. The local adaptation of the wolf ecotype most likely reflects the wolf preference to remain within the type of habitat in which it was born.
Hybridize with Canis
moreIt used to be thought that dogs and gray wolves do not voluntarily interbreed in the wild, though they can produce offspring of a wolfy dog. In 2010, a study of 74 lineages of Italian wolves found that 5 of them were from dog breeds, suggesting that female wolves would breed with wild dogs in the wild. In North America, black wolves derive their color from wolf-dog hybridization, which occurred 10,000-15,000 years ago. Like pure wolves, hybrids breed once every year, even though their breeding season occurs three months earlier, with most puppies being born in the winter period, thus reducing their chances of survival. However, one genetic study conducted in the Caucasus Mountains shows that as many as 10% of dogs in the area, including cattle guard dogs, are first generation hybrids. Dog-wolf hybrid breeding has mushroomed in the United States, with 300,000 such animals present there.
The gray wolf has interbred extensively with the eastern wolf producing a hybrid population called the Great Lakes boreal wolf. Unlike the red and eastern wolves, the gray wolf is not ready to interbreed with the coyotes. However, genetic markers of coyotes have been found in some populations of isolated wild gray wolves in the southern United States. The Y-chromosome gray wolf has also been found in the Texas coyote haplotype. In tests conducted on an ambiguous Texas species tin, mtDNA analysis indicates that it is a coyote, although subsequent tests reveal that it is a gray wolf coyote wolf that is cherished by a Mexican gray wolf man. In 2013, a captive breeding experiment in Utah between gray wolves and the western coyote produced six hybrids through artificial insemination, making this the first hybridization case between a pure coyote and a northwest gray wolf. At the age of six months, hybrids are closely monitored and shown to display the physical and behavioral characteristics of both species. Although hybridization between wolves and gold wolves was never observed, evidence of the incident was discovered through mtDNA analysis of wolves in Bulgaria. Although there is no genetic evidence of the hybridization of the gray wolves in the Caucasus Mountains, there are cases where otherwise the pure gold wolves have shown a phenotype like the gray wolf, to the false point for wolves by trained biologists.
Physical description
Anatomy and dimensions
Gray wolf is the largest member in Canidae, except for certain domestic dog species. The weight and size of the gray wolf can vary widely throughout the world, tending to increase proportionately to the latitude as predicted by Bergmann's Rule, with large Alaskan and Canadian wolves sometimes weighing 3-6 times more than Middle Eastern and Asian cousins South them. On average, adult wolves are 105-160 cm (41-63 inches) long and 80-85 cm (31-33 inches) tall. The tail size is 29-50 cm (11-20 inches). The ears have a height of 90-110 mm (3.5-4.3 inches), and rear legs of 220-250 mm (8.7-9.8 inches). The average body mass of the existing gray wolf is 40 kg (88 pounds), with the smallest specimens recorded at 12 kg (26 pounds) and the largest at 80 kg (176 lb). The weight of the gray wolf varies geographically; on average, European wolves can weigh 38.5 kg (85 pounds), North American wolf 36 kg (79 pounds) and Indian and Arab wolves 25 kg (55 pounds). Women in certain wolf populations typically weigh 5-10 pounds (2.3-4.5 kg) less than men. Wolves weighing more than 54 kg (119 pounds) are not common, although very large individuals have been recorded in Alaska, Canada, and forests in western Russia. The heaviest gray wolf recorded in North America was killed at 70 Mile River in eastern-central Alaska on July 12, 1939 and weighed 79.4 kg (£ 175).
Compared to the closest wild cousins ​​(coyote and golden jackal), gray wolf is bigger and heavier, with a wider snout, shorter ears, shorter body and longer tail. It is a sleek, robust animal built with a very downhill rib, a sloping back and a muscular neck. The wolf's legs are somewhat longer than the other child's legs, which allow the animal to move quickly, and allow it to cope with deep snow that covers most of its geographical range. The ears are relatively small and triangular in shape. Women tend to have a narrower muzzle and forehead, thinner neck, slightly shorter legs and smaller shoulders than men.
Gray wolves usually carry their heads on the same level as their backs, raising them only when alert. It usually moves at a slower pace, placing one claw directly in front of the other. This gait can be maintained for hours at a speed of 8-9 km/h (5.0-5.6 mph), and allows wolves to travel great distances. On the bare track, wolves can quickly reach speeds of 50-60 km/h (31-37 mph). Gray wolves have a walking force of 55-70 km/h (34-43 mph), can jump 5 m (16 feet) horizontally in one leap, and can maintain a quick pursuit for at least 20 minutes.
Generally, the wolf has a high body weight of 0.93% -1.07% of the total body mass compared with the average mammal at 0.59% of the total body mass. Wolves have a declining heartbeat showing heart enlargement and hypertrophy. The Tibetan gray wolf, which occupies an area up to 3,000 above sea level, has evolved a liver that retains low oxygen levels. In particular, this wolf has a strong choice for RYR2, a gene that initiates cardiac excitation.
Skulls and teeth
The head of a large and heavy gray wolf, with a wide forehead, a strong jaw and a long, blunt snout. The average skull length is 230-280 mm (9.1 to 11.0 inches), and the width is 130-150 mm (5.1-5.9 inches). His teeth are heavy and bulky, better suited for bone crushing than existing teeth, though not as specific as those found in hyenas. The molar has a flat chewing surface, but not at the same level as the coyote, whose diet contains more plant-based ingredients. The gray wolf's jaw can exert a crushing pressure of perhaps 10,340 kPa (1,500 psi) compared to 5,200 kPa (750 psi) for German shepherds. This style is enough to break most of the bones. A study of the estimated bite strength of canine teeth from large live samples and fossil mammal predators when adjusted for body mass found that for placental mammals, the bite strength in canines (in Newton/kilogram weight) was the largest. in an extinct wolf (163), then followed among the canids that are still present by four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves: African hunting dogs (142), gray wolves 136, ), and dingo (108). A similar trend was found with bite-bite carnassial bite, but with horrible wolves and gray wolves both measuring (141), followed by African hunting dogs (136), holes 114, and dingo (113).
Feather
Gray wolf has a very dense and fluffy winter fur, with short, damp hair and long, rough guard hair. Most of the underfur and some guard hairs are released in the spring and grow back in the fall. The longest hair occurs in the back, especially on the front and neck. Especially long hair is on the shoulders, and almost form the emblem at the top of the neck. The feathers on the cheeks extend and form the file. Her ears are covered in short hair, which stands out from the feathers. Short, elastic and close hair is located on the limbs from the elbow to the calcaneal tendon. Winter fur is very resistant to cold; wolves in northern climates can rest comfortably in open areas at -40 Â ° by placing their snouts between their hind legs and covering their faces with their tails. Furry wolf provides better insulation than dog hair, and does not collect ice when warm breath condenses. In warm climates, the bristles are rougher and more rare than in the northern wolf. Female wolves tend to have hairy limbs more hairy than males, and generally develop a smooth overall coat as they age. Older wolves generally have more white feathers at the tail end, along the nose and on the forehead. Winter fur is maintained longest in lactating women, although with hair falling around her nipples. The length of the hair in the middle of the back is 60-70 mm (2.4-2.8 inches). Hair length of the hair guard on the shoulder generally does not exceed 90 mm (3.5 inches), but can reach 110-130 mm (4.3-5.1 inches).
The color of the coat ranges from almost pure white through various shades of blond, beige, and ocher to gray, brown, and black, with variations in the color of feathers tending to increase at higher latitudes. The color difference between the fur between the sexes is largely absent, although women may have red tones. The black wolf in North America inherits the K b allele which is responsible for melanism from the previous crossbreeding with dogs, while the mutation was found to occur naturally in wolves from Iran. Black specimens are more common in North America than in Eurasia, with about half the wolves in Yellowstone National Park being black.
Behavior
Social and territorial behavior
Gray wolf is a social animal, whose social unit consists essentially of a pair of mated, accompanied by the couple's adult offspring. The average package consists of 5-11 family of animals (1-2 adults, 3-6 adolescents and 1-3 years old), or sometimes two or three families, with a very large package of up to 42 wolves is known. Under ideal conditions, couples are married to produce children every year, with such offspring usually staying in the pack for 10-54 months before spreading. Triggers for dissemination include the onset of sexual maturity and competition in food packages. The distance traveled by the spread of wolves varies greatly; some live around the group of parents, while others can travel a great distance of 206 km (128 mi), 390 km (240 mi), and 670 km (420 miles) from their birth packets. New packages are usually set up by unrelated men and women, traveling together to find areas that do not have other hostile packages. The wolf packets rarely adopt other wolves into their folds, and usually kill them. In rare cases where other wolves are adopted, adoption is almost always an immature animal (aged 1-3 years) impossible to compete for breeding rights with mated couples. In some cases, a single wolf is adopted into a package to replace the deceased rancher. During a period of sweaty abundance (migration, childbirth etc.), different wolf packets may temporarily join. Studies of wolf cortisol levels showed that they increased significantly when members of the pack died, indicating the presence of stress.
Wolves are highly territorial animals, and generally build much larger areas than they need to survive to ensure stable supply of prey. The size of the territory relies heavily on the number of prey available and the age of the packaged children, tends to increase in areas with low prey populations or when their children reach the age of 6 months, thus having the same nutritional needs as adults. Wagon travel packages are constantly searching for prey, covering about 9% of their territory per day (an average of 25 km/d (16 mi/d)). The core of their territory averages 35 km 2 (14 m²), where they spend 50% of their time. The density of prey tends to be higher in the surrounding area, although wolves tend to avoid hunting on the periphery of their range except despair, due to the possibility of a fatal encounter with neighboring packages. The smallest area in the record is held by a group of six wolves in northeastern Minnesota, which occupy about 33 km 2 (13 m²), while the largest is held by Alaska packets of ten wolves covering an area of ​​6,272 km < > 2 (2.422Ã, sqÃ, mi). Wolves packs are usually completed, and usually leave only their usual ranges during severe food shortages.
Wolves retain their territory from other packages through a combination of scent marks, direct and wailing attacks (see Communications). Scent marking is used for territorial advertising, and involves urinating, defecating and scratching the ground. Scent marks are generally left every 240 m (260 y) across the region on regular journeys and intersections. Such markers can last for 2-3 weeks, and are usually placed near rocks, rocks, trees, or large animal skeletons. Territorial fights are one of the main causes of wolf death, with one study concluding that 14-65% of wolf deaths in Minnesota and Denali National Park and Conservation are caused by predation by other wolves.
Reproduction and development
Gray wolves are generally monogamous, with mated couples usually staying alive together. After the death of a mated wolf, the couple is quickly reshaped. Because men often dominate in certain wolf populations, unpopular females are rare. If a spreading gray wolf can not build a territory or find a mate, he is paired with daughters of an established nursery partner from another group. This gray wolf is called the "Casanova wolf" and, unlike the males of an existing group, they do not form a couple bond with the female they mate. Some packets of gray wolves may have some breeding females in this way, as in Yellowstone National Park. Gray wolves also practice alloparental treatment, in which a pair of wolves can adopt a puppy or other puppy. This may happen if the original parent dies or for some reason apart from them. In addition to heterosexual behavior, homosexual behavior has been observed in gray wolves. Gray gray wolves often bump into each other when the highest ranked woman in the pack comes to the heat.
The first breeding age in gray wolves is highly dependent on environmental factors: when food is plentiful, or when the wolf population is massively managed, wolves can raise puppies at a younger age in order to better exploit resources abundantly. This is further demonstrated by the fact that prisoner wolves have been known to breed as soon as they reach 9-10 months, while the youngest is recorded as a 2-year-old wild breeding wolf. Females are able to produce children every year, with one litter each year being average. Unlike the coyote, the gray wolf never achieves reproductive aging. Estrus usually occurs at the end of winter, with older multiparous females entering estrus 2-3 weeks earlier than younger women. During pregnancy, female wolves remain in nests located away from the peripheral zones of their territory, where encounters with other groups are more likely to occur. Old ladies usually whisper in their previous dung nests, while younger women usually live near their birthplace. The gestation period lasts 62-75 days, with puppies usually born in the summer period.
Wolves have relatively large puppies in small groups compared to other canid species. The average litter consists of 5-6 children, with the litter size tending to increase in areas where the prey is abundant, although the enormous litter of 14-17 puppies occurs only 1% of the time. Pups are usually born in spring, coinciding with an increase in the corresponding prey population. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and covered with short, soft gray-brown fur. They weigh 300-500 g (11-18 oz) at birth, and start looking after 9-12 days. Milk canine teeth erupt after one month. The first pups leave the nest after 3 weeks. At the age of 1.5 months, they are nimble enough to escape from danger. The female wolf leaves no nest for the first few weeks, relying on father to provide food for them and their children. The puppy starts eating solid foods at the age of 3-4 weeks. Pups have a rapid growth rate during the first four months of their lives: during this period, the dog's weight can increase by almost 30 times. The wolf puppies start playing fights at the age of 3 weeks, though unlike the young foxes and coyotes, their bites are stunted. The actual fight to build a hierarchy usually occurs at the age of 5-8 weeks. This is different from young foxes and coyotes, which may start a fight even before the beginning of play behavior. In autumn, the puppies are mature enough to accompany adults hunting for large prey.
Hunting and feeding behavior
Although social animals, single wolves or married couples usually have a higher success rate in hunting than large packages, with occasional single wolves observed to kill large prey such as deer, bison and muskoxen without assistance. The gray wolf's sense of smell is relatively weak developed when compared to some hunting dog races, capable of detecting carcasses of wind direction no more than 2-3 kilometers (1.2-1.9 mi). Because of this, it rarely succeeds in catching hidden rabbits or birds, although it can easily follow a new trail. The perception of the hearing is acute enough to be able to hear up to a frequency of 26 kHz, which is sufficient to register the fall of leaves in the fall period. The gray wolf hunt can be divided into five stages:
- Search for prey: The wolf travels for prey through the power of scents, odds, and tracking. Wolves usually search for their prey with aroma, although they usually have to directly fight the wind. When the gentle breeze carrying the prey's scent lay, the wolves remained alert, and turned their eyes, ears, and noses toward their targets. In open areas, wolves may precede hunting with group ceremonies involving standing from nose to nose and wiggling their tails. Once completed, the wolf heads towards its prey.
- Stalks: Wolves try to hide themselves as they approach. When the gap between their wolf and their prey is closed, the wolf speeds up their steps, wags their tails, and peers attentively, drawing closer to their quarry without making it run away.
- Encounter: After a prey detects a wolf, he can approach a wolf, survive, or run away. Large prey, such as deer, deer, and muskoxen, usually stand on their soil. If this happens, the wolf will hold back, because they need a stimulus from the animals that are running to continue the attack. If the targeted animal stands on the ground, the wolf will ignore it, or try to intimidate it to run.
- Departure: If the prey is trying to escape, the wolf immediately chases after it. This is the most critical stage of the hunt, because wolves can never catch their prey at high speed. If the prey travels in groups, the wolf will try to separate the herd, or isolate one or two animals from it.
- The chase: Continuation of the busy life, the wolf is trying to chase their prey and kill it. When chasing small prey, wolves try to chase their prey as soon as possible, while with larger animals, the pursuit lasts longer, to use prey selected. Wolves usually give up chasing after 1-2Ã, km (0.62-1,3Ã, mi), although one wolf was recorded chasing a deer for 21 km (13 mi). Both Russian and North American wolves have been observed to propel prey to ice crusted, cliffs, ravines, slopes and steep banks to slow them down.
The actual method of killing varies according to the prey species. With large prey, adult wolves usually avoid attacking the frontal, but instead focus on the back and sides of the animal. Large prey, like deer, is killed by biting large pieces of meat from the perineal area of ​​the soft, causing a loss of blood. The bite can cause a wound length of 10-15Ã,® (3.9-5.9Ã, inch), with three bites to the perineum usually enough to lower the large deer in optimal health. With medium-sized prey such as roe deer or sheep, the wolf kills by biting the throat, cutting off the nerve pathways and carotid arteries, causing the animal to die within seconds to a minute. With small prey like mice, wolves jump with high arcs and paralyze them with their forepaws. When prey is vulnerable and abundant, wolves can sometimes be surplus kills. Such events are common in pets, but rarely occur in the wild. In the wild, surplus murders occur primarily at the end of winter or spring, when the snow is very deep (hindering the movement of prey) or during the sowing period, when the wolf needs a ready supply of meat when tied. Medium-sized prey is particularly vulnerable to surplus murders, because the method of fast-throat bite that allows them to kill wolves quickly kills one animal and moves on to another.
After the prey is dropped, the wolf starts feeding vigorously, tearing and pulling the carcass in all directions, and braking. Breeding pairs usually monopolize food to continue producing puppies. When food is scarce, this is done at the expense of other family members, especially non-puppies. Breeding pairs usually eat first, though because those who usually work hardest in killing prey, they may rest after a long hunt and let the rest of the family eat without interruption. After the breeding partner finishes eating, the rest of the family tears the carcass and transport it to remote areas where they can eat in peace. Wolves usually start to eat by consuming internal organs larger than prey, such as heart, liver, lung and lining the stomach. Kidneys and spleen are eaten after exposure, followed by muscle. A wolf can eat 15-19% of its body weight in one meal.
Communications
Visual
The expressive behavior of the gray wolf is more complex than the coyotes and golden wolves, as is demanded by his group's life and hunting habits. While less social children generally have a simple visual signal repertoire, wolves have more varied signals that are subtly intermediate in intensity. When neutral, feet do not tense, tail hanging loose, smooth face, lips unwarranted, and the ears do not lead in a certain direction. Postural communication on the wolf consists of various facial expressions, tail position, and piloerection. Aggressive or self-assertive wolves are characterized by their slow and deliberate movements, high postures and elevated hacks, while obedients carry their bodies low, soften their feathers and lower their ears and tails. When a nursery meets a member of the subordinate's family, he may be staring at him, standing tall and still with a horizontal tail to his spine. Two forms of submissive behavior are recognized: passive and active. Passive submission usually occurs as a reaction to the dominant animal approach, and consists of submisif wolf lying partially on its back and allows the dominant wolf to sniff out its anogenital area. Active submission often occurs as a form of speech, and involves wolves bowing to the other in low postures, and licking the faces of other wolves. When wolves are together, they usually enjoy behaviors such as pushing the nose, jaw wrestling, rubbing the cheeks, and licking the face. The mouth of each muzzle is a friendly gesture, while pinching the muzzle with open teeth is the dominant display.
Similar to humans, the gray wolf has a facial color pattern in which the direction of the gaze can be easily identified, although this often does not occur in other canid species. In 2014, a study compared face color patterns in 25 canid species. The results show that the face color patterns of the canid species are related to their view communication, and that especially the gray wolves use gaze signals in certain communications.
Auditory
Gray wolves howls assemble packs (usually before and after hunting), to deliver alarms (especially on nest sites), to search for each other during storms or strange territories and to communicate at great distances. Wolves can be heard under certain conditions up to 130 km 2 (50 sq mi). The wolf howling is generally indistinguishable from large dogs. Male wolves vote through an octave, passing to deep bass with pressure on " O ", while women produce bariton nose that is modulated under pressure at " U ". The dog hardly ever howl, while the longing wolf produces a howl that ends with a series of complaints like a dog. Howling consists of a base frequency that may lie between 150 and 780 Hz, and consists of up to 12 harmonically related tones. Pitches usually remain constant or vary smoothly, and may change direction by four or five times. Howls are used to call a friend's partner to kill long, smooth sounds similar to the initial scream of a horned owl. When chasing the prey, they emit a high-pitched howl, vibrating on two tones. When approaching their prey, they emit a combination of short skin and howl. When howling together, the wolf is more aligned than the choir on the same tone, thus creating the illusion that there are more wolves than it really is. Lone wolves usually avoid howling in areas where other packages are present. Wolves from different geographical locations may howl in different modes: the howls of European wolves are much more protracted and melodious than North American wolves, whose wails are louder and have a stronger emphasis on the first syllable. But both are mutually understandable, as North American wolves have been recorded in response to the European-style howls made by biologists.
Other vocalizations of wolves are usually divided into three categories: growling, barking and whining. Barking has a fundamental frequency between 320-904 Hz, and is usually emitted by the shocked wolf. Wolves do not bark loudly or continuously like dogs, but bark several times and back away from perceived danger. Growling has a base frequency of 380-450 Hz, and is usually emitted during food challenges. Pups are generally growling while playing. One variation of the wail was accompanied by a high-pitched, high-pitched voice that preceded the attack. Whining is associated with situations of anxiety, curiosity, questions and intimacy like speech, feeding puppies and playing.
olfactory
Smell is probably the meaning of the most acute wolf, and plays an important role in communication. Wolves have a large number of apocrine sweat glands in the face, lips, back, and between the toes. The odor generated by these glands varies according to the microflora and diet of individual wolves, giving each "different fingerprint smell". The combination of apocrine and eccrine sweat glands on the feet allows the wolf to store its aroma while scratching the soil, which usually occurs after urine signs and defects during the breeding season. The follicles in the guard hair of the wolf's back have groups of apocrine and sebaceous glands at their base. Because the skin on the back is usually folded, it provides a microclimate for the propagation of bacteria around the gland. During piloerection, the guard hair on the back is raised and the skin folds spread, thus releasing the scent.
Pre-caudal aroma glands may play a role in expressing aggression, as gigantous wolves raise their tails while dropping the tip, thus positioning the aroma glands at their highest point. Wolves have a pair of anal sacs under the rectum, which contain apocrine and sebaceous glands. The components of anal pocket secretion vary according to season and sex, thus indicating that secretions provide information related to gender and reproductive conditions. The secretion of the preputial gland can advertise hormonal or social position, since the dominant wolf has been observed to stand on top of the subordinate, apparently presenting a genital area for investigation, which may include a licking genital.
During the breeding season, female wolves secrete substances from the vagina, which communicate the state of female reproduction, and can be detected by males from a distance. Urine marking is the most widely learned mode of smell communication in wolves. The exact function is debated, although most researchers agree that the ultimate goal is to set limits. Urine signs are more frequent and loud in unfamiliar areas, or intrusion areas, where other wolf or canida aromas exist. The so-called leg passage (RLU) is more common in male wolves than in females, and can serve the purpose of maximizing the possibility of detection by similar individuals, as well as reflecting the height of the wolf marks. Only dominant wolves usually use RLU, with male subordinates continuing to use adolescent standing postures throughout adulthood. RLU is considered to be one of the most important forms of aromatic communication in the wolf, which forms 60-80% of all observed aroma marks.
Ecology
Habitat
Gray Wolf is a habitat generalist, and can occur in deserts, grasslands, forests and the Arctic tundra. The use of habitat by gray wolves strongly correlates with abundance of prey, snow conditions, absence or low livestock density, road density, human presence and topography. In cold climates, the gray wolf can reduce blood flow near the skin to save body heat. The warmth of the footpads is set independently of the rest of the body, and is maintained just above the freezing point of the network where the pads come into contact with ice and snow. Gray wolves use different places to rest their diaries: places with cover are preferred during cold, humid and windy weather, while wolves in dry, calm and warm weather are ready to rest in the open. During the fall-spring, when the wolves are more active, they are willing to lie in the open, wherever they are. The actual pier is usually built for puppies during the summer period. When building nests, females make use of natural shelters such as crevices in rocks, cliffs that protrude on the banks of rivers and holes covered by vegetation. Occasionally, the nest is a suitable burrow from smaller animals such as foxes, badger or guinea pigs. A proper nest is often dilated and partially re-created. On rare occasions, the female wolf digs her own burrow, which is usually small and short with 1-3 openings. The nest is usually built no more than 500 m (550 y) away from the water source, and usually faces south, thus ensuring adequate exposure to sunlight, keeping the denning region relatively snow-free. Rest areas, play areas for puppies and leftovers are usually found around the wolf's nest. The smell of urine and rotten food originating from the denning area often attracted birds such as magpie and crow. Since there are some convenient places for burrows, the wolf lair is usually occupied by animals of the same family. Although they mostly avoid areas within the human view, wolves have been known to nest near domiciles, asphalt roads and railroad tracks.
Diet
Globally, the gray wolf diet consists mainly of large (240-650 kg (530-1.430 pounds) and medium (23-130 kg (51-287 lb)) wild ungulates, with local population variations due to a mixture of wild ungulates, small prey and domestic species consumed All social predators of terrestrial mammals feed primarily on terrestrial herbivorous mammals that have a body mass similar to the combined mass of members of social groups.The gray wolf generally specializes in preceding the susceptible individuals of large prey , with a pack of woody wolves capable of lowering a 500 kg (1,100 pound) deer.The digestion takes only a few hours, so the wolf can feed several times a day, quickly using large amounts of meat.
Although wolves mainly eat medium to large ungulates, they are not fussy eaters. Small animals that can complement wolf food include marmots, rabbits, badgers, foxes, weasels, ground squirrels, rats, hamsters, rodents and other rodents, and insectivores. They often eat waterfowl and their eggs. When the food is insufficient, they prey on lizards, snakes, frogs, rarely toads and large insects available. At the time of scarcity, wolves ready to eat carcasses, visiting cemetery and slaughterhouses. Cannibalism is not uncommon in wolves: during harsh winters, wrappers often attack weak or wounded wolves, and may feed on dead pack members. A wolf pack in Astrakhan hunting the Caspian seal on the Caspian Sea coast and several packets of wolves in Alaska and Western Canada have been observed to eat salmon. Humans are rare, but occasionally devoured. Other primates are sometimes taken by wolves including gray languages ​​in Nepal and panda hamadryas in Saudi Arabia.
In Eurasia, many gray wolf populations are forced to live mostly on cattle and garbage in areas with dense human activity, although wild ungulates such as deer, red deer, deer roe and wild boar are still the most important food sources in Russia and more much more. mountainous areas of Eastern Europe. Other prey species include reindeer, argali, mouflon, wisent, saiga, ibex, chamois, wild goat, fallow deer and deer musk. North American wolf prey animals largely continue to occupy suitable habitats with low human density, and live jackal cases are mostly on tremendous waste or livestock. Animals preferred as prey by North American wolves include white deer, deer, deer, bighorn sheep, Dall sheep, American bison, muskox and caribou.
Wolves supplement their food with fruits and vegetables. They are willing to eat mountain ash, lily of the valley, bilberry, blueberry and cowberry. Other fruits include nightshade, apple and pear. They are ready to visit melon fields during the summer. Adequate wolves store fat under the skin, around the heart, intestines, kidneys, and bone marrow, especially during autumn and winter.
Enemies and competitors
Gray wolves usually dominate other canid species in areas where both occur. In North America, gray wolf incidents that kill coyotes are common, especially in winter, when the coyotes feed on the wolves. Wolves can attack coyote nest sites, dig and kill their children, although they rarely eat them. There is no coyote record that kills wolves, though the coyotes may chase wolves if they exceed their numbers. Near-similar interactions have been observed in Eurasia between the gray wolf and the golden wolf, with relatively small last figures in regions with high wolf densities. Gray wolves are the most important predators of raccoon dogs, killing many of them in spring and summer. Wolves also kill red, arctic and corsac foxes, usually in carcasses, sometimes eating them. In Asia, they may be competing with cubes, although there is at least one record of the wolves alone associated with a pair of holes in Debrigarh Wildlife Reserve.
The brown bear usually dominates the packet of wolves in disputes over the carcass, while most wolf packs win against the bear when defending their nest sites. Both species kill each other young. Wolves eat the brown bear they kill, while the brown bear seems to eat only the young wolves. The interaction of wolves with American black bears is much less frequent than with brown bears, due to differences in habitat preferences. The majority of black bears encounter wolves occur in the northern range of species, with no recorded interactions in Mexico. Wolves have been recorded on numerous occasions to actively seek black bears in their nests and kill them without eating them. Unlike brown bears, black bears are often defeated against wolves in disputes for killing. While encounters with brown and black bears seem common, polar bears are rarely encountered by wolves, although there are two notes of packets of wolves that kill polar bear children. Wolves also kill black Asian bear children.
Wolves may find striped hyenas in Israel, Central Asia and India, usually in disputes about carrion. The striped shawls extensively feed on the carcass of a wolf killed in the area where the two species interact. One-to-one, hyenas dominate the wolves, and may prey on them, but the wolf packets can repel single or more hyenas. However, there are cases of striped hyenas women who dominate 12 Arab wolves. However, there are two known cases from southern Israel, where wolves and striped hyenas are intertwined with each other in a seemingly friendly manner.
Large wolf populations limit the number of small to medium cats. Wolves meet cougars along parts of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent mountains. Wolves and cougars usually avoid meeting each other by hunting at different heights. In winter, however, when snow accumulation forces their prey into the valley, the interaction between the two species becomes more likely. Wolves in groups usually dominate cougars and can steal kills. They have been reported to kill their mother and kitten. Wolf hunts a stepper cat, and probably scavenges from a snow leopard. Wolves can also reduce Eurasia lynx populations. Wolves can kill lynxes by lowering them, or killing them before they can escape into the trees. Similar reports about the meeting between wolves and Bobcats have been documented.
The remains of wolves are sometimes preyed on by wolves. Wolverines usually wait until the wolf finishes eating, but it has been known to drive the wolves out of the killing. However, there have been confirmed reports about the pack of wolves that killed the wolves.
In addition to humans, the tiger seems to be the only serious wolf predator. The interaction of wolves and tigers is well documented in Sikhote-Alin, where tigers suppress the numbers of wolves, either to localized extinction points or to very low numbers making it a functionally functional ecosystem component. Wolves appear able to escape from the competitive exclusion of tigers only when human persecution reduces the number of tigers. Proven cases of tigers that kill wolves are rare and attacks seem to be more competitive than predators in nature, with at least four tiger records proven to kill wolves without eating them.
Reach and preservation
This gray wolf was once one of the most widely spread mammals in the world, living in the northern hemisphere of northern latitudes of 15 Â ° LU in North America and 12 Â ° C in India. However, intentional human persecution has reduced the species range to about one-third, due to predatory cattle and fear of attacks on humans. This species is now extinct in most of Western Europe, in Mexico and most of the United States. In modern times, gray wolves mostly occur in the desert and remote areas, especially in Canada, Alaska and the northern United States, Europe, and Asia from about 75 ° N to 12 ° N. The population decline of Wolf has been captured since the 1970s, and has fostered recolonisation and reintroduction in parts of the previous range, due to legal protection, changes in land use and rural human populations shifted to cities. Competition with humans for livestock and game species, concerns about the dangers posed by wolves against humans, and habitat fragmentation are a further threat to the species. Despite this threat, due to the relatively broad gray wolf and the stable population, it is classified as least concern by the IUCN.
Europe
Decline
Although wolf-dog hybridization in Europe has raised concerns among conservation groups that fear the purity of gray wolves, genetic testing suggests that dog gene introgression into a European gray wolf population poses no significant threat. Also, since the breeding season and the dogs are not fully coincidental, it is likely that wild wolves and dogs mate and produce small surviving offspring.
The destruction of Northern European wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages, and continued into the late 1800s. In Britain, the wolf persecution is upheld by law, and the last wolf was killed in the early sixteenth century during the reign of Henry VII. Wolves last longer in Scotland, where they take shelter in vast forests, which are then burned. Wolves survived in the woods of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684. The extermination of wolves in Ireland followed the same path, with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786. The wolf call was introduced in Sweden in 1647, after the extermination of deer and wolf deer forced to feed the cattle. The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in an organized drive. In 1960, some wolves remained in Sweden, because of the use of snowmobiles in their pursuit, with the last specimens killed in 1966. The gray wolf was destroyed in Denmark in 1772 and the last Norwegian wolf was killed in 1973. This species was destroyed. in Finnish 20th century, despite the regular dissolution of Russia. Gray wolves were only present in eastern and northern Finland in 1900, although their numbers increased after World War II.
In Central Europe, wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early nineteenth century, due to organized hunting and reduced population ungulation. In Bavaria, the last wolf was killed in 1847, and disappeared from the Rhine in 1899. In Switzerland, the wolf was extinct in the 20th century; they have naturally returned from Italy since the 1990s. In 1934, Nazi Germany became the first country in modern history to place wolves under protection, though the species was already persecuted in Germany at the moment. The last free-living wolf who was assassinated on contemporary German soil before 1945 was the so-called "Sabrodt Tiger", who was shot near Hoyerswerda, Lusatia (then Lower Silesia) in 1904. Today, the wolf has returned to the area. The wolf hunt in France was first instituted by Charlemagne between 800-813, when he founded the louveterie, a special corps of werewolf hunters. The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789, but re-established in 1814. In 1883, up to 1,386 wolves were killed, with more by poison.
In Eastern Europe, wolves have never been completely destroyed, because of the region's exposure to Asia and its vast forest areas. However, the population of Eastern European wolves decreased to a very low figure by the end of the nineteenth century. Wolves were persecuted in Slovakia during the first decade of the 20th century and, by the middle of the twentieth century, can only be found in some forest areas in eastern Poland. Wolves in the eastern Balkans benefited from the proximity of the territory to the former Soviet Union and the vast areas of plains, mountains and farmland. Wolves in Hungary only occurred in half the country around the beginning of the 20th century, and were largely confined to the Carpathian Basin. The wolf population in Romania remains enormous, with an average of 2,800 wolves being killed annually from a population of 4,600 from 1955-1965. Low all the time was achieved in 1967, when the population was reduced to 1,550 animals. The destruction of wolves in Bulgaria is relatively new, since the previous population of about 1,000 animals in 1955 was reduced to about 100-200 in 1964. In Greece, this species disappeared from southern Peloponnese in 1930. Despite an intense hunting period during the eighteenth century, the wolf had disappeared in the western Balkans, from Albania to the former Yugoslavia. Organized persecution of wolves began in Yugoslavia in 1923, with the formation of the Wolves Annihilation Committee (WEC) in Kocevje, Slovenia. WEC managed to reduce the number of wolves in the Dinaric Alps.
In Southern Europe, wolf extermination is not complete in Northern Europe, due to greater cultural tolerance of species. The new wolf population began to decline in the Iberian Peninsula at the beginning of the 19th century, and was reduced by half its original size in 1900. The wolf gifts were regularly paid in Italy until the late 1950s. The wolf was destroyed in the Alps in 1800, and only amounted to 100 on in 1973, inhabited only 3-5% of their previous Italian range.
Recovery
The restoration of the European wolf population began after the 1950s, when traditional rural and rural economies declined and thereby eliminated the need to persecute wolves. In the 1980s, small and isolated wolf populations grew amid declining human density in rural areas and the recovery of wild prey populations.
Gray wolves have been fully protected in Italy since 1976, and now have a population of over 1,269-1,800. Wolves of Italy entered the French National Park, Mercantour, in 1993, and at least fifty wolves were found in the Western Alps in 2000. By 2013, 250 wolves in the Western Alps impose a significant load on traditional sheep and goat farms with more loss of 5,000 animals. in 2012. There are about 2,000 wolves inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula, of which 150 are in northeastern Portugal. In Spain, this species occurs in Galicia, Leon, and Asturias. Although hundreds of Iberian wolves are killed illegally every year, the population has spread south across the Duero river and east to Asturias and the Pyrenees Mountains.
In 1978, the wolf began recolonizing central Sweden after a twelve-year absence, and has since expanded into southern Norway. In 2005, the total number of Swedish and Norwegian wolves was estimated at least a hundred, including eleven breeding pairs. Gray wolves are fully protected in Sweden and partly controlled in Norway. The Scandinavian wolf population owes their continued existence to neighboring Finland's proximity to the Republic of Karelia, which houses a large population of wolves. Wolves in Finland are protected only in the southern third of the country, and can be hunted in other areas during certain seasons, although hunting is still common, with 90% of young wolf deaths caused by human predation, and the number of wolves killed exceeds the number of hunting licenses, in some areas with a factor of two. Furthermore, deer population decline has reduced the supply of wolf food. Since 2011, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark have also reported sightings of possible wolves by natural migrations from adjacent countries. By 2016, a female wolf tracks 550 kilometers from the southwestern region of Berlin to settle in Jutland, Denmark where a male wolf has been reported in 2012 for the first time in 200 years. Wolves also began breeding in the Waldviertel Lower Austria region for the first time in over 130 years.
The Wolf population in Poland has risen to about 800-900 individuals since it was classified as a game species in 1976. Poland plays a fundamental role in providing expansion routes to adjacent Central European countries. In the east, its reach overlaps with populations in Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, and Slovakia. A population in western Poland flourished into eastern Germany and in 2000 the first puppies were born in German territory. In 2012, an estimated 14 packets of wolves live in Germany (mostly in the east and north) and a package with puppies has been seen within 15 miles of Berlin; the amount increased to 46 packs by 2016. Gray wolves are protected in Slovakia, although exceptions are made for wolves that kill cattle. Some Slovak wolves spread to the Czech Republic, where they were given full protection. Wolves in Slovakia, Ukraine and Croatia can spread to Hungary, where lack of protection precludes the buildup of autonomous populations. Although wolves have special status in Hungary, they may be hunted with permits throughout the year if they cause problems.
Romania has a large wolf population, with 2,500 animals. Wolves have been a protected animal in Romania since 1996, although the law is not enforced. The number of wolves in Albania and Macedonia is largely unknown, despite the importance of the two countries in linking wolf populations from Greece to Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. Although protected, wolves are sometimes still killed illegally in Greece, and their future is uncertain. The number of wolves has declined in Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1986, while the species is fully protected in neighboring Croatia and Slovenia.
Asia
Historical range and decrease
During the 19th century, gray wolves were widespread in many parts of the Holy Land in the east and west of the Jordan River. However, the numbers greatly decreased between 1964 and 1980, largely due to mistreatment by farmers. This species was not considered common in northern and central Saudi Arabia during the 19th century, with most of the early publications involving fine animals from the southwestern Asir, a rocky northern region bordering Jordan, or the surrounding areas of Riyadh.
The gray wolf range in the Soviet Union covers almost all areas of the country, not only in the Solovetsky Islands, Franz-Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, and Karagin, Commanders and Shantar Islands. This species was destroyed twice in the Crimea, after the aftermath of the Russian Civil War, and again after World War II. After two world wars, Soviet wolf populations peaked twice. 30,000 wolves are harvested each year from a population of 200,000 during the 1940s, with 40,000-50,000 harvested during peak years. The population of the Soviet wolf reached its lowest point around 1970, disappearing in much of Russia's European region. The population increased again in 1980 to about 75,000, with 32,000 killed in 1979. The wolf populations in northern Mongolia declined during the 1940s, primarily because of the hunting of deer, the wolf's main wolf. In Britain ruled by India, wolves were severely persecuted for their attacks on sheep, goats, and children. In 1876, 2,825 wolves were flooded in the North-West Province (NWP) and Bihar. In the 1920s, wolf extermination remained a priority in the NWP and Awadh. Overall, more than 100,000 wolves were killed for gifts in British India between 1871 and 1916.
Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji recovery period, the annihilation known as ? We no kujo . Wolves are considered a threat to livestock, promoted by the Meiji government at the time, and targeted through a system of gifts and direct chemical destruction campaigns inspired by similar contemporary American campaigns. The last Japanese wolf was a man killed on January 23, 1905 near Washikaguchi (now named Higashi Yoshiro). The extinct Japanese wolf is descended from a large Siberian wolf, which colonized the Korean peninsula and Japan, before being separated from mainland Asia, 20,000 years ago during the Pleistocene. During the Holocene, the Tsugaru Strait widened and isolated Honshu from Hokkaid, causing climate change that led to the extinction of most of the large-bodied buffalo inhabiting the archipelago. The Japanese wolves are likely to experience an island dwarf process 7,000-13,000 years ago in response to these climatic and ecological pressures. C. l. hattai (formerly native Hokkaid?) is significantly larger than its southern cousin C. l. hodophilax , for inhabiting higher altitudes and having access to larger prey, as well as ongoing genetic interactions by eradicating wolves from Siberia.
The modern range
There is little reliable data about the status of wolves in the Middle East, except for those living in Israel and Saudi Arabia, although their numbers seem stable, and will likely remain so. Israel's conservation policies and effective law enforcement maintain a medium-sized wolf population, which radiates to neighboring countries, while Saudi Arabia has a vast desert, where about 300-600 wolves live without interruption. Wolves survive in most of their historical ranges in Saudi Arabia, perhaps due to the lack of abundant pastoralism and human waste. Turkey may play an important role in safeguarding wolves in the region, because of its contact with Central Asia. The Turkish mountains have served as a sanctuary for b
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